School of Athens
The most famous philosophers of ancient times move within an imposing Renaissance architecture which is inspired by Bramante's project for the renewal of the early Christian basilica of St Peter. Some of these are easily recognizable. In the centre Plato points upwards with a finger and holds his book Timeus in his hand, flanked by Aristotle with Ethics; Pythagoras is shown in the foreground intent on explaining the diatesseron. Diogenes is lying on the stairs with a dish, while the pessimist philosopher, Heracleitus, a portrait of Michelangelo, is leaning against a block of marble, writing on a sheet of paper. Michelangelo was in those years executing the paintings in the nearby Sistine Chapel. On the right we see Euclid, who is teaching geometry to his pupils, Zoroaster holding the heavenly sphere and Ptolemy holding the earthly sphere. The personage on the extreme right with the black beret is a self-portrait of Raphael.
The work above depicts a scene of ancient Greek philosophy. Aristotle walks with his teacher and mentor Plato (whose appearance is modeled on Raphael’s close friend, fellow Renaissance thinker and painter Leonardo da Vinci.) The figure of Plato (center left, in orange and purple) is pointing upwards, symbolizing the Platonic ideology of philosophical idealism. The more youthful Aristotle (center right, in blue and brown) has his hand outstretched in front of him, encapsulating Aristotle’s pragmatic empirical mode of thought. Aristotle examined affairs practically as they are; Plato examined affairs idealistically as he thought they ought to be.
Socratic philosophy is a method of questioning and dialogue that encourages critical thinking and self-examination. It was developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates of Athens (c. 470–399 BC).
Socratic method
- Involves a teacher asking thought-provoking questions to students
- Focuses on understanding the underlying beliefs of participants
- Encourages students to ask questions and think critically
- Creates a classroom environment that's productive and not intimidating
Socratic ideas
- Philosophy should have practical results that improve society
- Knowledge of virtue is necessary to become virtuous
- All evil acts are committed out of ignorance
- Committing an injustice is worse than suffering an injustice
- The only thing one can be certain of is one's ignorance
- The unexamined life is not worth living
Socrates' influence
- Socrates' ideas influenced Western philosophy and Classical antiquity
- He's considered the father of modern education
- His ideas are reflected in the works of Plato, Xenophon, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche
- His ideas are also reflected in modern educational frameworks
Platonic philosophy is a system of thought that originated with the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (c.427-347 BC). It's based on the idea that the physical world is a reflection of unchanging Forms, or Ideas, which are the true reality.
Key concepts
- Forms: Abstract objects that are non-physical, timeless, and unchangeable
- Theory of Forms: The idea that the physical world is not as real as Forms
- Platonic idealism: Another name for the Theory of Forms
- Platonic realism: Another name for the Theory of Forms
- Platonism's influence
- Platonism has had a profound impact on Western thought.
Examples of Forms
- Some examples of Forms include goodness, beauty, equality, bigness, likeness, unity, being, sameness, difference, change, and changelessness.
Platonic love
- The term "platonic love" refers to a relationship between two people based on close intimacy and attraction, but without sexual intimacy.
Platonic society
- Plato believed that a good society is based on virtue, including friendship, freedom, justice, wisdom, courage, and moderation.
Aristotelian philosophy, a tradition rooted in the work of Aristotle (c.384-322 BC), a polymath, whose works ranged across all philosophical fields emphasizing deductive logic, inductive methods, and the study of natural philosophy and metaphysics, including ethics and political theory, with a focus on virtue and the pursuit of human flourishing.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of key aspects of Aristotelian philosophy:
Core Concepts
- Deductive and Inductive Logic:
- Aristotle is credited with the development of formal logic, using deductive reasoning (syllogisms) and inductive methods to analyze and understand the world.
- Metaphysics:
- Aristotle explored the nature of reality, including the concepts of substance, form, matter, potentiality, and actuality, seeking to understand the fundamental principles of existence.
- Ethics:
- Aristotle's ethics, outlined in his Nicomachean Ethics, emphasizes the importance of developing virtuous character through habit and practice, leading to eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness).
- Politics:
- Aristotle's political philosophy, as explored in Politics, examines different forms of government and the ideal state, focusing on the common good and the importance of citizens' participation in public life.
- Natural Philosophy:
- Aristotle's natural philosophy, encompassing physics, biology, and other natural sciences, sought to understand the natural world through observation and reason, focusing on the causes and purposes of natural phenomena.
- Four Causes:
- Aristotle's theory of causation involves four types of causes: material, formal, efficient, and final, which help explain the nature and development of things.
- Teleology:
- Aristotle believed that everything has a purpose or telos, and that understanding the purpose of something is crucial to understanding its nature.
Key Areas of Influence
- Western Scholasticism:
- Aristotelian philosophy became the intellectual framework of Western Scholasticism during the Middle Ages, influencing theology and philosophy.
- Virtue Ethics:
- Aristotle's ethics has inspired the field of virtue ethics, which emphasizes character development and the pursuit of excellence.
- Contemporary Philosophy:
- Aristotle's ideas continue to influence contemporary philosophy, particularly in areas like metaphysics, political philosophy, and the philosophy of science.
- Renaissance:
- Aristotelian works were the subject of renewed interest in the Renaissance, with many commentaries on Aristotle's works being composed during this period.
- Thomas Aquinas:
- St. Thomas Aquinas, in the 13th century, attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and science with Christian dogma, influencing the theology and worldview of the Roman Catholic Church.
I Ancient Philosophy (Pre-Socratic to Hellenistic)
- Pre-Socratics (6th-5th centuries BCE):
- Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, Zeno of Elea, Anaxagoras, Democritus.
- Classical Greek Philosophy (5th-4th centuries BCE):
- Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
- Hellenistic Philosophy (3rd century BCE - 1st century CE):
- Epicurus, Zeno of Citium (founder of Stoicism), Pyrrhon of Elis.
- Roman Philosophy (1st century BCE - 5th century CE):
- Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Plotinus.
II Medieval Philosophy (5th-15th centuries CE)
- Early Medieval (5th-10th centuries):
- Augustine of Hippo.
- High and Late Medieval (11th-15th centuries):
- Boethius, Thomas Aquinas, William of Ockham.
- Islamic Philosophy:
- Al-Kindi, Avicenna, Averroes, Al-Ghazali.
- Jewish Philosophy:
- Maimonides.
III Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy (15th-18th centuries)
- Renaissance:
- Machiavelli, Pico della Mirandola.
- Early Modern (16th-18th centuries):
- Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Isaac Newton.
- Enlightenment:
- John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Montesquieu.
IV Modern and Contemporary Philosophy (19th-21st centuries)
- 19th Century:
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Karl Marx, Søren Kierkegaard, John Stuart Mill.
- 20th Century:
- Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore (Analytic Philosophy), Friedrich Waismann, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Martin Heidegger (Continental Philosophy), Hannah Arendt.
- 21st Century:
- Contemporary analytic and continental philosophy, feminist philosophy, postcolonial philosophy, philosophy of science, ethics, and political philosophy.
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