Hellenistic Judaism

Hellenistic Judaism was a form of Judaism in classical antiquity that combined Jewish religious tradition with elements of Hellenistic culture and religion. Until the early Muslim conquests of the eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria (modern-day Turkey), the two main Greek urban settlements of the Middle East and North Africa, both founded in the end of the 4th century BCE in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period, where there was a conflict between Hellenizers and traditionalists.

The major literary product of the contact between Second Temple Judaism and Hellenistic culture is the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible from Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic to Koine Greek, specifically, Jewish Koine Greek. Mentionable are also the philosophic and ethical treatises of Philo and the historiographical works of the other Hellenistic Jewish authors.^[1]^[2]

The decline of Hellenistic Judaism began in the 2nd century, and the precise causes are not fully understood. Following the Roman suppression of the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE), Jewish populations in Egypt, including the large and influential community in Alexandria, as well as those in Cyrenaica and Cyprus, were eradicated. Jewish presence in these regions was not re-established until centuries later, without regaining their former influence. Over time, much of the Greek-speaking diaspora was incorporated into the rabbinic framework by the rabbis. Additionally, it is possible that some members of Hellenistic Jewry were marginalized, absorbed, or gradually became part of the Koine-speaking core of early Christianity centered on Antioch and its traditions, such as the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch.

Background

Map of Alexander's empire, extending east and south of ancient Macedonia

The conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE spread Greek culture and colonization—a process of cultural change called Hellenization—over non-Greek lands including the Levant. This gave rise to the Hellenistic period, which sought to create a common or universal culture in the Alexandrian empire based on that of fifth-century Athens, along with a fusion of Near Eastern cultures.^[3] The period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa,^[4] the most famous being Alexandria in Egypt. New cities established composed of colonists from different parts of the Greek world and not from a specific metropolis ("mother city") as before.^[4]

The spread of Hellenism caused a blending of the local indigenous culture and the culture of the conquerors.^[5] Jewish life in both Judea and the diaspora was influenced by the culture and language of Hellenism. Local indigenous elites frequently played a significant role in embracing and promoting Hellenism, leading to its impact on all regional cultures, including the Jewish culture. In Judea, Hellenism gradually took hold, despite the relatively small number of foreign inhabitants.^[6]

The Jews living in countries west of the Levant formed the Hellenistic diaspora. The Egyptian diaspora is the most well known of these.^[7] It witnessed close ties.... Indeed, there was firm economic integration of Judea with the Ptolemaic Kingdom that ruled from Alexandria, while there were friendly relations between the royal court and the leaders of the Jewish community. This was a diaspora of choice, not of imposition. Information is less robust regarding diasporas in other territories. It suggests that the situation was by and large the same as it was in Egypt.^[8]

The Greeks viewed Jewish culture favorably, while Hellenism gained adherents among the Jews. While Hellenism has sometimes been presented (under the influence of 2 Maccabees, notably a work in Koine Greek) as a threat of assimilation diametrically opposed to Jewish tradition,

Adaptation to Hellenic culture did not require compromise of Jewish precepts or conscience. When a Greek gymnasium was introduced into Jerusalem, it was installed by a Jewish High Priest. And other priests soon engaged in wrestling matches in the palaestra. They plainly did not reckon such activities as undermining their priestly duties.
— Erich S. Gruen^[9]^: 73–74

Later historians would sometimes depict Hellenism and Judaism uniquely incompatible, likely the result of the persecution of Antiochus IV. However, it does not appear that most Jews in the Hellenistic era considered Greek rulers any worse or different from Persian or Babylonian ones. Writings of Hellenized Jews such as Philo of Alexandria show no particular belief that Jewish and Greek culture are incompatible; as another example, the Letter of Aristeas holds up Jews and Judaism in a favorable light by the standards of Greek culture. The one major difference that even the most Hellenized Jews did not appear to compromise on was the prohibition on polytheism; this still separated Hellenistic Jews from wider Greek culture in refusing to honor shrines, temples, gods etc. that did not pertain to the God of Israel.^[10]

Hellenistic rulers of Judea

Under the suzerainty of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and later the Seleucid Empire, Judea witnessed a period of peace and protection of its institutions.^[11] For their aid against his Ptolemaic enemies, Antiochus III the Great promised his Jewish subjects a reduction in taxes and funds to repair the city of Jerusalem and the Second Temple.^[11]

Relations deteriorated under Antiochus's successor Seleucus IV Philopator, and then, for reasons not fully understood, his successor Antiochus IV Epiphanes drastically overturned the previous policy of respect and protection, banning key Jewish religious rites and traditions in Judea (although not among the diaspora) and sparking a traditionalist revolt against Greek rule.^[11] Out of this revolt was formed an independent Jewish kingdom known as the Hasmonean dynasty, which lasted from 141 BCE to 63 BCE and eventually disintegrated into civil war.

Hellenization of Jewish society

Overall, Jewish society was divided between conservative factions and pro-Hellenist factions.^[12] Pro-Hellenist Jews were generally upper-class or minorities living in Gentile-majority communities. They lived in towns that were far from Jerusalem and heavily connected with Greek trading networks.^[13]

The most significant literary achievement of Hellenistic Judaism was the development of the Septuagint.

[sometimes known as the Greek Old TEstament, abbreviated as LXX,^[2] is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the original Biblical Hebrew and is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the original Biblical Hebrew.^[3]^[4] The full Greek title derives from the story recorded in the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates that "the laws of the Jews" were translated into the Greek language at the request of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 BC) by seventy-two Hebrew translators—six from each of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.^[5]^[6]^[7]
Biblical scholars agree that the first five books of the Hebrew Bible were translated from Biblical Hebrew into Koine Greek by Jews living in the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centred on the large community in Alexandria, probably in the early or middle part of the 3rd century BC.^[8] The remaining books were presumably translated in the 2nd century BC.^[4]^[9]^[10] Some targums translating or paraphrasing the Bible into Aramaic were also made during the Second Temple period.^[11]
Few people could speak and even fewer could read in the Hebrew language during the Second Temple period; Koine Greek^[3]^[12]^[13]^[14] and Aramaic were the lingua francas at that time among the Jewish community. The Septuagint, therefore, satisfied a need in the Jewish community.]

Other notable works include the Book of Wisdom, Sirach and pseudepigraphic apocalyptic literature such as the Assumption of Moses, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Book of Baruch and the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch. Some scholars consider Paul the Apostle to be a Hellenist Jew, even though he claimed to be a Pharisee (Acts 23:6).^[14]

Hellenistic Jews also created rewritten versions and expansions of biblical stories. As Erich S. Gruen points out, these writings show "a strong sense of identity and national self-consciousness."^[15]

Philo defended Judaism as a monotheistic philosophy that anticipated the tenets of Hellenistic philosophy. He also popularized metaphors such as "circumcision of the heart" to Greek audiences.^[16]

Hellenization was evident in the religious Jewish establishment:

'Ḥoni' became 'Menelaus'; 'Joshua' became 'Jason' or 'Jesus' [Ἰησοῦς]. The Hellenic influence pervaded everything, and even in the very strongholds of Judaism it modified the organization of the state, the laws, and public affairs, art, science, and industry, affecting even the ordinary things of life and the common associations of the people [...] The inscription forbidding strangers to advance beyond a certain point in the Temple was in Greek; and was probably made necessary by the presence of numerous Jews from Greek-speaking countries at the time of the festivals (comp. the "murmuring of the Grecians against the Hebrews," Acts vi. 1). The coffers in the Temple which contained the shekel contributions were marked with Greek letters (Sheḳ. iii. 2). It is therefore no wonder that there were synagogues of the Libertines, Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and Asiatics in the Holy City itself (Acts vi. 9).^[17]

The turbulence created by Alexander the Great's death also popularized Jewish messianism.^[13]

Diasporas

For two millennia, Jews lived in Greece and created the Romaniote Jewish community.^[18] They spoke Yevanic, a Greek dialect with Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic influence.^[19] According to oral tradition, they were descendants of Jewish refugees who fled Jerusalem in 70 CE, after the destruction of the Second Temple.^[20] However, their presence dates back to 300-250 BCE, according to existing inscriptions.^[21] Greek philosophers such as Clearchus of Soli were impressed by Jews and believed they were descendants of Indian philosophers.^[22] Elsewhere, Jews in Alexandria created a "unique fusion of Greek and Jewish culture".^[12]

Aftermath

Annihilation of communities during the Diaspora Revolt

Many Jewish communities in the Hellenistic world were decimated in the aftermath of the Diaspora Revolt, a series of large-scale uprisings that occurred throughout the Roman East between 115 and 117 CE. Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the ingathering of exiles and the reconstruction of the Temple, these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to Judea and rebuilding Jerusalem.^[23]^[24]^[25] Following the suppression of these uprisings under Trajan, an act that has been described alternatively as ethnic cleansing or genocide,^[26]^[27] the Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica, and Cyprus were nearly annihilated.^[26]^[28]^[29]

In Egypt, the Jewish population faced near-extermination, with the once-influential community in Alexandria eradicated and the city's renowned large synagogue destroyed.^[23]^[26]^[28] Jewish presence in Egypt virtually disappeared after the revolt, and it was not until the 3rd century that small Jewish communities began to re-establish themselves, although they never regained their former prominence.^[30] The Jewish communities in Cyrenaica and Cyprus were similarly wiped out, and there is no evidence of Jewish presence in these regions until the 4th century.^[26]^[28]

Rise of Rabbinic Judaism

Following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Judaism shifted its focus to scripture, prayer, and ethical deeds under rabbinic leadership, marking the emergence of Rabbinic Judaism.^[31] Initially centered in Judaea/Palaestina, where it became dominant by the third century CE, Rabbinic Judaism expanded its influence to the Jewish diaspora in Babylonia through the efforts of scholars migrating from Palaestina. The rabbis ultimately incorporated much of the Greek-speaking diaspora into the rabbinic framework, though the exact means by which they did so are not well-documented.^[31]

Christianization

Some scholars believe that Hellenistic Judaism was marginalized by, absorbed into, or became early Christianity. The Pauline epistles and the Acts of the Apostles report that—after his initial focus on the conversion of Hellenized Jews across Anatolia, Macedonia, Thrace and northern Syria without criticizing their laws and traditions—^[32]^[33] Paul the Apostle eventually preferred to evangelize communities of Greek and Macedonian proselytes and God-fearers, or Greek circles sympathetic to Judaism: the Apostolic Decree allowing converts to forego circumcision made Christianity a more attractive option for interested pagans than Rabbinic Judaism, which required ritual circumcision for converts. See also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity^[34]^[35] and the Abrogation of Old Covenant laws.

Jewish rabbis were somewhat successful in countering Christian efforts to convert Jews in the first centuries.^[36] The attractiveness of Christianity may have also suffered a setback with its being explicitly outlawed in the 80s CE by Domitian as a "Jewish superstition", while Judaism retained its privileges as long as members paid the fiscus Judaicus.

The opening verse of Acts 6 points to the problematic cultural divisions between Hellenized Jews and Aramaic-speaking Israelites in Jerusalem, a disunion that reverberated within the emerging Christian community:

...it speaks of "Hellenists" and "Hebrews." The existence of these two distinct groups characterizes the earliest Christian community in Jerusalem. The Hebrews were Jewish Christians who spoke almost exclusively Aramaic, and the Hellenists were also Jewish Christians whose mother tongue was Greek. They were Greek-speaking Jews of the Diaspora, who returned to settle in Jerusalem. To identify them, Luke uses the term Hellenistai. When he had in mind Greeks, gentiles, non-Jews who spoke Greek and lived according to the Greek fashion, then he used the word Hellenes (Acts 21.28). As the very context of Acts 6 makes clear, the Hellenistai [Greek speaking Jews of the Diaspora returned to Jerusalem] are not Hellenes [non-Jews who spoke Greek and lived in Jerusalem].^[37]

A sizeable proportion of the Hellenized Jewish communities of Syria (Antioch, Alexandretta and neighboring cities) converted progressively to the Greco-Roman branch of Christianity that eventually constituted the "Melkite" (or "Imperial") Hellenistic churches of the Middle East and North Africa area:

As Christian Judaism originated at Jerusalem, so Gentile Christianity started at Antioch, then the leading center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter and Paul as its apostles. From Antioch it spread to the various cities and provinces of Syria, among the Hellenistic Syrians as well as among the Hellenistic Jews who, as a result of the great rebellions against the Romans in A.D. 70 and 130, were driven out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria.^[38]

Legacy

Both early Christianity and early Rabbinical Judaism were far less doctrinal and less theologically homogeneous than they are today, and both were significantly influenced by Hellenistic religion and borrowed allegories and concepts from classical Hellenistic philosophy and the works of Greek-speaking Jewish authors of the end of the Second Temple period before the two schools of thought eventually affirmed their respective norms and doctrines, notably by diverging increasingly on key issues such as the status of purity laws, the validity of Christian messianic beliefs, and the use of Koiné Greek and Latin as liturgical languages replacing Biblical Hebrew.^[39]

The word synagogue comes from Jewish Koine Greek, a language spoken by Hellenized Jews across southeastern Europe (Macedonia, Thrace, northern Greece), North Africa, and the Middle East after the 3rd century BCE. Many synagogues were built by the Hellenistai or adherents of Hellenistic Judaism in the Greek Isles, Cilicia, Northwestern and Eastern Syria, and Northern Israel as early as the first century BCE—notably in Delos, Antioch, Alexandretta, Galilee and Dura-Europos. Because of the mosaics and frescos representing heroic figures and Biblical characters (viewed as potentially conductive of "image worship" by later generations of Jewish scholars and rabbis), many of these early synagogues were at first mistaken for Greek temples or Antiochian Greek Orthodox churches.

[*Aramaic - A Semitic language, a Syrian dialect of which was used as a lingua franca in the Near East from the 6th century BC. It gradually replaced Hebrew as the language of the Jewish people in those areas and was itself supplanted by Arabic in the 7th century AD.]

Early rabbis of Babylonian Jewish descent, such as Hillel the Elder, whose parents were Aramaic-speaking Jewish migrants from Babylonia (hence the nickname "Ha-Bavli"), had to learn the Greek language and Greek philosophy to be conversant with sophisticated rabbinical language—many of the theological innovations introduced by Hillel had Greek names, most famously the Talmudic notion of Prozbul, from Koine Greek προσβολή, "to deliver":

Unlike literary Hebrew, popular Aramaic or Hebrew constantly adopted new Greek loanwords, as is shown by the language of the Mishnaic and Talmudic literature. While it reflects the situation at a later period, its origins go back well before the Christian era. The collection of the loanwords in the Mishna to be found in Schürer shows the areas in which Hellenistic influence first became visible- military matters, state administration and legislature, trade and commerce, clothing and household utensils, and not least in building. The so-called copper scroll with its utopian list of treasures also contains a series of Greek loanwords. When towards the end of the first century BCE, Hillel in practice repealed the regulation of the remission of debts in the sabbath year (Deut. 15.1-11) by the possibility of a special reservation on the part of the creditor, this reservation was given a Greek name introduced into Palestinian legal language- perōzebbōl = προσβολή, a sign that even at that time legal language was shot through with Greek.
— Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (1974)

The unique combination of ethnocultural traits inhered from the fusion of a Greek-Macedonian cultural base, Hellenistic Judaism and Roman civilization gave birth to the distinctly Antiochian "Middle Eastern-Roman" Christian traditions of Cilicia (Southeastern Turkey) and Syria/Lebanon:

"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church".^[40]

Some presently used Grecian "Ancient Synagogal" priestly rites and hymns have survived partially to the present, notably in the distinct church services of the followers of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and its sister church the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch in the Hatay Province of southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Northern Israel, and in the Greek-Levantine Christian diasporas of Brazil, Mexico, the United States and Canada. Many of the surviving liturgical traditions of these communities rooted in Hellenistic Judaism and, more generally, Second Temple Judaism, were expunged progressively in the late medieval and modern eras by both Phanariot European-Greek (Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople) and Vatican (Roman Catholic) Gentile theologians who sought to “bring back” Levantine Greek Orthodox and Greek-Catholic communities into the European Christian fold: some ancient Judeo-Greek traditions were thus deliberately abolished or reduced in the process. Members of these communities still call themselves "Rûm" (literally "Roman"; usually referred to as "Byzantine" in English) and referring to Greeks in Turkish, Persian and Levantine Arabic. In that context, the term Rûm is preferred over Yāvāni or Ionani (literally "Ionian"), also referring to Greeks in Ancient Hebrew, Sanskrit and Classical Arabic.

Individual Hellenized Jews

Hellenistic and Hasmonean Period

Andronicus son of Meshullam, Egyptian Jewish scholar of the 2nd century BCE. One of the first known advocates of early Pharisaic (proto-Rabbinical) orthodoxy against the Samaritans.
Antigonus of Sokho, also known as Antigonos of Socho, was the first scholar of whom Pharisaic tradition has preserved not only the name but also an important theological doctrine. He flourished about the first half of the third century BCE. According to the Mishnah, he was the disciple and successor of Simon the Just. Antigonus is also the first noted Jew to have a Greek name, a fact commonly discussed by scholars regarding the extent of Hellenic influence on Judaism following the conquest of Judaea by Alexander the Great.
Antigonus II Mattathias (known in Hebrew as Matityahu) was the last Hasmonean king of Judea. Antigonus was executed in 37 BCE, after a reign of three years during which he led the national struggle of the Jews for independence from the Romans.
Alexander of Judaea, or Alexander Maccabeus, was the eldest son of Aristobulus II, king of Judaea^[41]
Aristobulus of Alexandria (fl. 181–124 BCE), philosopher of the Peripatetic school who attempted to fuse ideas in the Hebrew Scriptures with those in Greek thought
Artapanus of Alexandria (fl. 3rd century BC), Alexandrian Jewish writer who wrote a history Concerning the Jews, quoted by Polyhistor and Eusebius^[42]
Cleodemus Malchus, Jewish historian referenced by Alexander Polyhistor and Josephus^[43]
Eupolemus, an early Hellenic Jewish historian whose writings are known from Alexander Polyhistor and Eusebius Pamphili^[44]
Ezekiel the Tragedian, Alexandrian Jewish poet who wrote a play Exagōgē, a paraphrase of the Exodus in iambic trimeter^[45]
Jason of the Oniad family, High Priest in the Temple in Jerusalem from 175 to 172 BCE
Menelaus, High Priest in Jerusalem from 171 BCE to about 161 BCE
Mariamne I, Jewish princess of the Hasmonean dynasty, was the second wife of Herod the Great.
Onias I (Hellenized form of Hebrew name (Greek: Ὀνίας) from (Hebrew: Honiyya) was the son of Jaddua mentioned in Nehemiah.^[46] According to Josephus, this Jaddua is said to have been a contemporary of Alexander the Great.^[47] I Maccabees regards Onias as a contemporary of the Spartan king Areus I (309–265 BCE).^[48] Onias I is thought to be the father or grandfather of Simon the Just.
Ben Sira, also known as Yesu'a son of Sirach, leading 2nd century BCE Jewish scholar and theologian who lived in Jerusalem and Alexandria, author of the Wisdom of Sirach, or "Book of Ecclesiasticus".

Simon Thassi (died 135 BCE) was the second son of king Mattathias and the first prince of the Jewish Hasmonean Dynasty. He was also a general (Doric Greek: στραταγός, stratagos; literally meaning "army leader") in the Greco-Syrian Seleucid army of Antiochus VI

Herodian and Roman Period

Philo of Alexandria (Ancient Greek: Φίλων, Philōn; c. 20 BCE – c. 50 CE), also called Philo Judaeus, of Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt
Titus Flavius Josephus, was the first Jewish historian. Initially a Jewish military leader during the First Jewish-Roman War, he famously switched sides and became a Roman citizen and acclaimed Romano-Jewish academic. He popularized the idea that Judaism was similar in many ways to Greek philosophy
Justus of Tiberias, Jewish historian born in Tiberias, "a highly Hellenistic Galilean city", he was a secretary to governor Herod Agrippa II and rival of Titus Flavius Josephus
Julianos (Hellenized form of the Latin name Julianus) and Pappos (from Koine Greek pappa or papas 'patriarch' or 'elder') born c. 80 CE in the city of Lod (Hebrew: לוֹד; Greco-Latin: Lydda, Diospolis, Ancient Greek: Λύδδα / Διόσπολις – city of Zeus), one of the main centers of Hellenistic culture in central Israel. It is possible that Julian and Pappus led the Jewish resistance movement against the Roman army in Israel during the Kitos War, 115–117 CE (their Hebrew names were Shemaiah and Ahijah respectively)
Lukuas, also called Andreas, Libyan Jew born c. 70 CE, was one of the main leaders the Jewish resistance movement against the Roman army in North Africa and Egypt during the Diaspora Revolt, 115–117 CE
Trypho the Jew, thought to be a 2nd-century CE rabbi opposed to Christian apologist Justin Martyr, whose Dialogue with Trypho is paradoxically "equally influenced by Greek and Rabbinic thought."^[49] He is most likely the same as Rabbi Tarfon.

Late Antiquity and Early Medieval Era

The Radhanites: an influential group of Jewish merchants and financiers active in France, Germany, Central Europe, Central Asia and China in the Early Middle Ages – thought to have revolutionized the world economy and contributed to the creation of the 'Medieval Silk Road' long before Italian and Byzantine merchants. Cecil Roth and Claude Cahen, among others, claim their name may have come originally from the Rhône River valley in France, which is Rhodanus in Latin and Rhodanos (Ῥοδανός) in Greek, as the center of Radhanite activity was probably in France where their trade routes began.

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^ " Conflict and Diversity in the Earliest Christian Community" Archived 2013-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Fr. V. Kesich, O.C.A.
^ "History of Christianity in Syria" Archived 2013-01-17 at the Wayback Machine, Catholic Encyclopedia
^ Daniel Boyarin. "Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism", Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 15.
^ "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file.
^ Alexander II of Judea Archived 2011-10-16 at the Wayback Machine at the Jewish Encyclopedia
^ "Artapanus | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
^ "Cleodemus | Jewish historian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
^ Bartlett, John R., ed. (1985), "EUPOLEMUS", Jews in the Hellenistic World: Josephus, Aristeas, The Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus, Cambridge Commentaries on Writings of the Jewish and Christian World, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 56–71, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511621307.005, ISBN 978-0-521-28551-3, retrieved 2024-02-19
^ Lanfranchi, Pierluigi (2018), "The Exagōgē of Ezekiel the Tragedian", The Exagōgē of Ezekiel the Tragedian, pp. 125–146, doi:10.1017/9781139833936.006, ISBN 978-1-107-03855-4, retrieved 2024-02-19
^ Nehemiah xii. 11
^ Jewish Antiquities xi. 8, § 7
^ I Macc. xii. 7, 8, 20
^ Philippe Bobichon (ed.), Justin Martyr, Dialogue avec Tryphon, édition critique, introduction, texte grec, traduction, commentaires, appendices, indices, (Coll. Paradosis nos. 47, vol. I-II.) Editions Universitaires de Fribourg Suisse, (1125 pp.), 2003

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[2] Barr, James (1989). "Chapter 3 - Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age". In Davies, W.D.; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–114. ISBN 9781139055123.

[mcleod-3] Roy M. MacLeod, The Library Of Alexandria: Centre Of Learning In The Ancient World

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[5] Hezser, Catherine (2010-08-19). "The Graeco-Roman Context of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine". The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. Oxford University Press. p. 28. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199216437.013.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.

[6] Zangenberg, Jürgen K.; Van De Zande, Dianne (2010-08-19). "Urbanization". The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–166. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199216437.013.0010. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.

[7] "Syracuse University. "The Jewish Diaspora in the Hellenistic Period"". Archived from the original on 2012-01-30. Retrieved 2013-09-11.

[8] Hegermann, Harald (1990). "Chapter 4: The Diaspora in the Hellenistic age". In Davies, W.D.; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge history of Judaism (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–166. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521219297.005. ISBN 9781139055123.

[gruen97-9] Gruen, Erich S. (1997). "Fact and Fiction: Jewish Legends in a Hellenistic Context". Hellenistic Constructs: Essays in Culture, History, and Historiography. University of California Press. pp. 72 ff.

[10] Grabbe, Lester L. (2008). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335–175 BCE). Library of Second Temple Studies. Vol. 68. T&T Clark. pp. 155–165. ISBN 978-0-567-03396-3.

[gruen-11] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gruen, Erich S. (1993). "Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews". In Green, Peter (ed.). Hellenistic History and Culture. University of California Press. pp. 238 ff.

[Karen_Armstrong2-12] Jump up to:^a ^b Armstrong, Karen (2006). The Great Transformation: The Beginning of our Religious Traditions (First ed.). New York: Knopf. pp. 350–352. ISBN 978-0-676-97465-2.

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[14] "Saul of Tarsus: Not a Hebrew Scholar; a Hellenist" Archived 2009-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, Jewish Encyclopedia

[15] Gruen, Erich S. (1998-12-31). Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition. University of California Press. p. 188. doi:10.1525/9780520929197. ISBN 978-0-520-92919-7.

[16] E. g., Leviticus 26:41, Ezekiel 44:7

[17] "Hellenism" Archived 2009-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, Jewish Encyclopedia, Quote: from 'Range of Hellenic Influence' and 'Reaction Against Hellenic Influence' sections

[Ioannina-18] The Holocaust in Greece: Ioannina. URL accessed April 15, 2006. Archived October 20, 2004, at the Wayback Machine

[:2-19] "Language". Jewish Community of Rhodes - Official Website. Retrieved 2024-01-20.

[20] Bonfil, Robert (2011). Jews in Byzantium: Dialectics of Minority and Majority Cultures. Jerusalem Studies in Religion and Culture. Brill. p. 105. ISBN 9789004203556.

[21] David M. Lewis (2002). Rhodes, P.J. (ed.). Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 381. ISBN 0-521-46564-8.

[22] Josephus, Flavius. Contra Apionem, I.176-183. Retrieved 6/16/2012 from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+Ap.+1.176&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0215.

[:33-23] Jump up to:^a ^b Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian. SBL Press. pp. 394–397, 399. ISBN 978-90-04-50204-8.

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[:222-25] Barclay, John M. G. (1998). Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-567-08651-8.

[:522-26] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d Kerkeslager, Allen; Setzer, Claudia; Trebilco, Paul; Goodblatt, David (2006), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), "The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce", The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 61–63, doi:10.1017/chol9780521772488.004, ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8, retrieved 2024-09-10

[27] Clarysse, Willy (2020-10-09), "The Jewish Presence in Graeco-Roman Egypt: The Evidence of the Papyri since the Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum", Israel in Egypt: The Land of Egypt as Concept and Reality for Jews in Antiquity and the Early Medieval Period, Brill, pp. 306, 317, 319, doi:10.1163/9789004435407_013, ISBN 978-90-04-43540-7, retrieved 2025-03-02

[Zeev-20063-28] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Zeev, Miriam Pucci Ben (2006-06-22), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), "The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117", The Cambridge History of Judaism (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 98–99, doi:10.1017/chol9780521772488.005, ISBN 978-1-139-05513-0, retrieved 2024-09-08

[29] Goodman, Martin (2004). "Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews". Past & Present (182): 10. ISSN 0031-2746.

[30] Barclay, John M. G. (1998). Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-567-08651-8.

[:0-31] Jump up to:^a ^b Kessler, Edward, ed. (2010), "The writings of the rabbis", An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations, Introduction to Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 65–66, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511801068.005, ISBN 978-0-521-87976-7, retrieved 2025-01-04

[32] Acts 16:1–3

[33] McGarvey on Acts 16 Archived 2012-10-16 at the Wayback Machine: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this 'on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters. '"

[34] 1 Corinthians 7:18

[35] "making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18;, Tosef.; Talmud tractes Shabbat xv. 9; Yevamot 72a, b; Yerushalmi Peah i. 16b; Yevamot viii. 9a; [1] Archived 2020-05-08 at the Wayback Machine; Catholic Encyclopedia: Circumcision Archived 2013-01-16 at the Wayback Machine: "To this epispastic operation performed on the athletes to conceal the marks of circumcision St. Paul alludes, me epispastho (1 Corinthians 7:18)."

[36] Kessler, Edward, ed. (2010), "The writings of the rabbis", An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations, Introduction to Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 67, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511801068.005, ISBN 978-0-521-87976-7, retrieved 2025-01-04

[37] " Conflict and Diversity in the Earliest Christian Community" Archived 2013-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Fr. V. Kesich, O.C.A.

[38] "History of Christianity in Syria" Archived 2013-01-17 at the Wayback Machine, Catholic Encyclopedia

[Daniel_Boyarin_1999_p._15-39] Daniel Boyarin. "Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism", Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 15.

[40] "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file.

[41] Alexander II of Judea Archived 2011-10-16 at the Wayback Machine at the Jewish Encyclopedia

[42] "Artapanus | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2024-02-19.

[43] "Cleodemus | Jewish historian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-02-19.

[44] Bartlett, John R., ed. (1985), "EUPOLEMUS", Jews in the Hellenistic World: Josephus, Aristeas, The Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus, Cambridge Commentaries on Writings of the Jewish and Christian World, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 56–71, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511621307.005, ISBN 978-0-521-28551-3, retrieved 2024-02-19

[45] Lanfranchi, Pierluigi (2018), "The Exagōgē of Ezekiel the Tragedian", The Exagōgē of Ezekiel the Tragedian, pp. 125–146, doi:10.1017/9781139833936.006, ISBN 978-1-107-03855-4, retrieved 2024-02-19

[46] Nehemiah xii. 11

[47] Jewish Antiquities xi. 8, § 7

[48] I Macc. xii. 7, 8, 20

[49] Philippe Bobichon (ed.), Justin Martyr, Dialogue avec Tryphon, édition critique, introduction, texte grec, traduction, commentaires, appendices, indices, (Coll. Paradosis nos. 47, vol. I-II.) Editions Universitaires de Fribourg Suisse, (1125 pp.), 2003

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