The Evolution of God: From Polytheism to Monotheism

The above diagram is an attempt to illustrate Wright’s account of

the evolution of the Judaeo-Christian God from ancient

Canaanite polytheism. |  click to enlarge

The EVOLUTION OF GOD:

from Polytheism to Monotheism

article link

by Nathan Fifield

May 2, 2022

[editorial additions or reformatting are mine - re slater]

The Bible is usually read as a grand narrative from creation to apocalypse. This straight-forward reading presents some paradoxes. For example, the Biblical God commands wrathful genocides alongside loving forgiveness. At times He demands uncompromising nationalism and at other times He promotes generous universalism.

For centuries, armies of apologists have been busy justifying these paradoxes, anxious to clear up doubts that could arise about the divine origins of Bible. Robert Wright’s monumental book The Evolution of God gives a much simpler explanation for God’s schizophrenic nature: the God of the Bible is actually an amalgamation of different Canaanite gods. According to Wright the Bible is a selectively edited compilation of sacred middle eastern texts and traditions forged together into a cohesive narrative

i) by Jewish scholars during the Babylonian captivity (697 BC) and then

ii) added to by Christian fathers in the 3rd century AD. It was only during the Babylonian captivity that true monotheism emerged.

amazon link

Book Blurb (June 2009)

In this sweeping narrative that takes us from the Stone Age to the Information Age, Robert Wright unveils an astonishing discovery: there is a hidden pattern that the great monotheistic faiths have followed as they have evolved. Through the prisms of archaeology, theology, and evolutionary psychology, Wright's findings overturn basic assumptions about Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and are sure to cause controversy. He explains why spirituality has a role today, and why science, contrary to conventional wisdom, affirms the validity of the religious quest. And this previously unrecognized evolutionary logic points not toward continued religious extremism, but future harmony. Nearly a decade in the making, The Evolution of God is a breathtaking re-examination of the past, and a visionary look forward.

In Wright’s narrative, the Jews were actually much less genocidal than the Biblical narrative suggests they were. In the Old Testament, God is a wrathful champion of an ISIS-like nation cruising from victory to victory as long as they were loyal to Him. However Wright suggests that Israel was actually a loose coalition of polytheistic tribes fighting off gigantic empires surrounding them. Within this pressure cooker Israelites faced impossible decisions: whether to accept humiliating vassalage at the hands of oppressive empires or to stand bravely against them. Not everyone can relate to the genocidal Jews in the literal Biblical account. But everyone can relate to Wright’s narrative of a nation afflicted and beset by unresolvable dilemmas. Under these circumstances it’s easy to see how some of the more troubling views about God emerged. Israelis were always the “little guys,” but they were inspired by stories that made them and their God out to be just as great or greater than the ruthless empires they were forced to take on.

The above diagram is an attempt to illustrate Wright’s account of the evolution of the Judaeo-Christian God from ancient Canaanite polytheism. It is meant to be a kind of family tree with the ancestral gods depicted at the bottom and evolving over time to form the Holy Trinity at the top. Wright is quick to point out that this narrative is not universally accepted, especially among the religiously devout. Nevertheless it utilizes some of the more mainstream theories about the development of Judaeo-Christianity from the historical and archaeological perspective. And nothing in this account precludes belief in the divine origins of the Bible. In fact the emergence of monotheism from polytheism represents a kind of miracle in and of itself. The Jews were uniquely important in the history of the world and not because of dramatic miracles like the crossing of the Red Sea. They were, in a much more important sense, divinely inspired.

Canaan as a Syncretic Pressure Cooker

Wright argues that Judaeo-Christian monotheism evolved from Canaanite polytheism through a process called syncretism (wherein two or more gods combine to form a new god). Much of Wright’s book analyzes how and why this happened. My illustration attempts to show how the empires surrounding Canaan acted as a kind of imperial pressure cooker leading to new deity combinations not unlike the pressures inside a nuclear reactor which force individual particles to combine to form new ones.

The Ancient Canaanite Trinity:
Ywh (the flame), Baal (the husband), El (the father)

There were many deities in ancient Canaan, but three of them are central to the evolution of monotheism: Ywh, Baal, and El:

Ywh (also Yhwh or Yahweh) was originally a warrior god with transcendent attributes. He enters the archeological record as a deity of the Shasu people, a religious minority persecuted in Egypt who later settled in Southern Canaan (the possible origin of the Exodus story). I’ve illustrated Ywh as an upside down triangle in an attempt to show that he represents the transcendence of heaven coming down into the human heart as a “still small voice” or a “fire in the bones.” Elsewhere in the Bible Ywh takes the form of a burning bush or fire from heaven. I’ve therefore given Ywh the subtitle “the flame.”

Baal was a popular storm god who brought rain to farmers and fertility to families. Like Ywh, I’ve illustrated Baal as an upside down triangle because he is also a sky god who comes down from heaven. Baal is also the Hebrew name for “husband,” and in a sense the god Baal was the archetypal husband: protector, provider, and inseminator of the land. (See analysis of Psalm 29)

El was

• i) the head god in a large pantheon of sons, daughters and wives, and
• ii) a popular god in Northern Canaan, He was
• iii) a nomadic deity who dwelt in a tent or tabernacle, and
• iv) displayed the kind of patriarchal leadership that was emulated by kings and chieftains.

I’ve illustrated him as a right-side-up triangle to emphasize the fact that he acts within a hierarchy. (El is also the generic term for “god” in Hebrew, so it is sometimes confusing distinguishing between El Shaddai, the proper name for this god, Eloheim, the name for El’s pantheon, and el, the name used for god generically.)

The Archetypes Father, Husband, and Flame

Although Wright doesn’t go into this, I want to highlight the archetypal connotations of this ancient Canaanite trinity. The archetypes Father, Husband, and Flame are remarkably similar to the Catholic trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost:

El, the Father, and God the Father, [are] both the crown [ of] the hierarchies of their respective theologies. The “Son” in Catholic theology is often described as a husband or bridegroom, an archetype similar to the “husband” Baal. The Holy Ghost also has remarkable similarities to the Biblical depictions of Ywh as a flame of fire or a still small voice. While there may not be a direct link between these ancient deities and the development of the Catholic trinity, monotheistic conceptions of God seem to reflect many of the ancient polytheistic archetypes.

[re slater - the ancient biblical text had incorporated these imageries into itself which the later developing early church placed drafted into it's Nicean Creed in 325 AD and formally adopted in 381 AD at the Council of Constantinople irrespective of resulting "philosophic" arguments for and against the Trinity.]

Origins

• The belief in the Trinity emerged around 33-34 AD, shortly after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
• The term "Trinity" was first used by Tertullian, a church father who lived from around 160–225 AD.
• The New Testament passages that associate the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit include Matthew 28:19, which states "in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit".

Influences

• The Trinity doctrine has Pagan Egyptian-Semitic (Canaanite) roots, dating back to at least two centuries BC.
• The Neoplatonist Plotinus' triad of the One, Intellect, and Soul may have also influenced the Trinity.

Development

• The Trinity doctrine was brought into Christianity by the incipient, as-yet-unformed, Roman Catholic and Orthodox Church Councils before the Great Schism of 1054 AD between Roman and Orthodox Faiths.
• The Trinity doctrine was central to many early Christian baptisms.

THE FIRST SYNCRETIC EVENT

Northern Ywh Worshippers + Southern El Worshippers

as Anit-Egypt Syncretic and Synchronising Alliances

There were two major syncretic events in ancient Canaan that were central to the formation of monotheism. One was a 9th century BC anti-Egyptian alliance between Ywh worshipers in the south and El worshipers in the north. This alliance may have been the origin of the covenant rites of Israelite worship wherein various tribes of Canaanites gathered together around important shrines to swear allegiance to El and appeal for his protection from their aggressive imperial neighbors. An anti-Egyptian alliance would make sense from the perspective of the Shasu, who had been persecuted by the Egyptians before. In this alliance El retains his position as the top god and Ywh becomes one of his sons (see Mark S. Smith analysis of Psalm 82 in Origins of Biblical Monotheism). El’s importance in Canaan was reduced after the Northern Kingdoms were carried away captive by the Assyrians in 722 BCE, the so called “lost ten tribes.”

The Shasu were Semitic-speaking, pastoral nomads from the Southern Levant, known to the ancient Egyptians as "nomads" or "Bedouin" who lived in the region to the east of Egypt, from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age.

re slater - Here's a more detailed explanation from AI....

Who they were:

The Shasu were a group of semi-nomadic people, possibly Bedouin, who lived by raising livestock and were known from Egyptian texts, wall reliefs, and monuments dating from the 18th Dynasty (circa 1550–1295 B.C.E.) through the Third Intermediate Period (circa 1069–747 B.C.E.).

Where they lived:

They inhabited the Southern Levant, an area to the east of Egypt, including regions like the Jezreel Valley, Ashkelon, Transjordan, and the Sinai.

How they were viewed by Egyptians:

The Egyptians viewed the Shasu as "nomads" or "Bedouin", and they were often portrayed as brigands or mercenaries.

Possible meaning of the term "Shasu":

The term "Shasu" is thought to be related to the Egyptian verb "to wander" or the Semitic word "to plunder," but the exact origin is uncertain.

"Shasu of Yahweh":

There are references in Egyptian texts to "the land of the Shasu of Yahweh," which are the oldest references found in any ancient texts to the God Yahweh outside of the Old Testament.

THE SECOND SYNCRETIC EVENT

The Israelite nations and the Phoenician Empire, 7th Century

The second major syncretic event occurred during a 7th century BC alliance between the Israelite nations and the Phoenician Empire. According to Wright this event influenced the merger of Baal and Ywh which happened not through cooperation but through competition. The Bible gives a dramatic account of this competition in 1 Kings which tells the story of a conflict between the Israelite King Ahab, his Queen Jezebel and the Prophet Elijah. Jezebel was a Phoenician princess loyal to Baal, and her marriage to the Israelite Ahab represented an important alliance with Phoenicia that would help fend off threats from the aggressive Assyrian Empire. This gave political clout to worshipers of Baal and marginalized those loyal to Ywh. The worshipers of Ywh refused to go down without a fight. Their prophets decried the alliance and attempted to demonstrate that not only was Ywh a better god than Baal, he could also best Baal at his own game: bring rain in times of drought and stave off an Assyrian onslaught without the help of the Phoenicians. This conflict is depicted in the famous contest between the priests of Baal and Elijah. While this story was written long after it had supposedly occurred, it is nevertheless a remarkable illustration of the political situation at the time. Ywh upped his game, taking on the attributes of Baal in addition to his own so that he could be touted as a legitimate substitute for those who were partial to Baal and his generative powers.

Josiah

If there is any figure that comes closest to embodying the ugly Biblical violence celebrated in the Book of Joshua and elsewhere it is the Jewish king Josiah (641–610 BCE), who slaughtered the priests of other gods and enforced the complete domination of the cult of Ywh. While his reforms didn’t survive his reign, his accomplishments were celebrated by later Jewish scholars during the Babylonian captivity who recast him as a reformer reinstating an ancient monotheism laid down by the legendary prophets Moses and Abraham.

THE THIRD SYNCRETIC EVENT

The Babylonian Captivity and a New Monotheism

The Babylonian captivity is the most important event in the creation of Jewish monotheism:

During the captivity Jewish scholars compiled and edited what would become today’s Old Testament. Traditions associated with each of the three gods (Ywh, Baal, and El) were combined into a cohesive narrative and the three gods became one: a new, all powerful deity who wasn’t just better than the gods of other nations but was in fact the only God in existence.

Exactly how this happened is the subject of much controversy but the most well known theory is called the documentary hypothesis. While many of the details of the documentary hypothesis are disputed, historians generally agree that there were various factions among the exiled Jews, each loyal to different traditions and conceptions of God. Their contributions resulted in a Biblical God who is quite diverse, at times nationalistic and at times internationalist, both pro-ritual and anti-ritual, both interventionist and non-interventionist, etc.

WIKIPEDIA DIAGRAMS

re slater - JPED is an older theory which has been displaced by similar contemporary theories more in line with this article here:

Wikipedia diagrams of 20th century documentary hypothesis:

J - Yahwist (10th–9th century BCE)[1][2]

E - Elohist (9th century BCE)[1]

Dtr1 - Early (7th century BCE) Deuteronomist historian

Dtr2 - Later (6th century BCE) Deuteronomist historian

P* - Priestly (6th–5th century BCE)[3][2]

D† - Deuteronomist

R - Redactor

DH - Deuteronomistic history (books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings)

Complicating the picture is the fact that Babylon was overtaken by the Persian Empire during the period of the captivity. The Persians allowed the Jews return to their homeland, but not without pressing the Jews to adopt a more globalist outlook. The Persians granted their people local control throughout the empire but wouldn’t tolerate belligerence. The so called “priestly source” of the documentary hypothesis was likely a pro-Persian faction among the Jews, one that emphasized the international, universal aspects of God as opposed to the nationalist Ywh. The priestly source uses El, not Ywh as God’s name and narrates stories from Elohist tradition like the story of Abraham.

In my chart I attempt to illustrate the Elohist emphasis during the captivity by enlarging the right-side-up triangle of El and merging it with Ywh’s upside-down triangle to create a new “star of David.”

THE FOURTH SYNCRETIC EVENT

The Evolution of Christianity

Jesus was a messianic Jew crucified by the Romans. However it wasn’t obvious to his followers what his death and resurrection was supposed to mean. There were many early versions of Christianity and they had widely divergent views. Robert Wright examines three main branches: Ebionite Christianity, Marcionism, and Pauline Christianity.

The Ebionites denied that Jesus was divine in any way. He was a messiah for the Jewish people and Christians were to continue to obey the Jewish laws of the Old Testament. Thus for Ebionite Christians, Jewish conceptions of God stayed intact.

Marcionism on the other hand held that Jesus had been sent by the true God and that he had defeated the evil god of the Old Testament. Therefore, the entire Jewish conception of God was to be done away with.

Somewhere in between the extremes of Marcionism and Ebionite Christianity is Pauline Christianity. A Jew himself, Paul believed that:

Jesus was the fulfillment of old Jewish law but that he did not overthrow the Jewish God.

Rather, Jesus was in some sense the God of both the Old and New Testament. This was a conception that would later evolve into the [pre-] Catholic Trinity.

Wright gives an extensive analysis as to why Pauline Christianity succeeded where other versions failed. Here is a brief summary:

"Christian missionaries relied initially on converts from the Jewish diaspora (which had occurred due to the collapse of the Alexandrian empire.) Jews scattered around the Hellenistic world were well regarded by the Greeks (who had also been scattered around the Mediterranean by the collapse of the Alexandrian empire). In fact many Greeks wanted to become Jews themselves although they balked at all the formal rules involved, particularly circumcision.Christianity was an attractive alternative. However Ebionite Christianity was too harsh and demanding, too much like existing Judaism. And Marcionism treated the Jews with contempt. In the end, Pauline Christianity represented a more ideal balance between Greek and Jewish culture.The newly baptized Greeks proclaimed that Jesus was “Socrates for the masses” and celebrated the God of both Old and New Testament as a single, universal Logos (stoicism) or One (neo-platonism)."

Wright’s thesis is informed by game theory and its notions of zero-sum and non-zero sum thinking. Both Marcionism and Ebionite Christianity were zero-sum religions. They either excluded the Jews or excluded the Gentiles. Pauline Christianity on the other hand was a non-zero sum phenomenon that allowed Greeks and Jews to come together in a way that enhanced the cultures and prospects of both groups.

Wright’s book goes on to discuss the development of Islam and skips over the development of the Catholic Trinity. At the top of my illustration however I’ve added a ven diagram with stocism and neo-platonism intersecting with Pauline Christianity. In my view, the Holy Trinity emerges from the combination of these three philosophical and religious traditions. This emergence was formalized by the great 4th and 5th century theologian St. Augustine. It’s a complicated topic I intend to cover more deeply in future posts. For this analysis I’ll only note that the Catholic conception of God was perhaps the greatest non-zero sum accomplishment of the human race up to that point. As Philosopher John Vervaeke points out, St. Augustine took the best philosophy (neoplatonic), the best theology (Christian), and the best psychology (stoic) of his day and melded it into a cohesive worldview so powerful that it would endure for over a thousand years, eventually giving birth to the modern world.

RIP - Process Theologian Dr. John B. Cobb, Jr. (1925-2024)

As an aside, my hero has passed away this week just a few weeks shy of his 100th birthday. At age 95, I took a six-week course on "Whitehead" from Dr. Cobb via Claremont School of Theological and have been reading and studying Process Philosopher A.N. Whitehead and Process Theologian John Cobb over the past six years.... rip.

R.E. Slater

December 28, 2024 

Dear Russ,

It is with profound sorrow that we announce the passing of John B. Cobb, Jr., a visionary thinker, tireless advocate for ecological civilization, and a guiding light in process thought. As the founder of the Center for Process Studies, John’s wisdom, courage, and unwavering hope inspired generations of scholars, activists, and spiritual seekers across the globe.  John remained remarkably active up until his final days, continuing to engage deeply with the issues that mattered most to him. However, after a fall a few days ago, his health declined rapidly. He passed away peacefully, surrounded by his loving family, on the night after Christmas—just six weeks shy of his 100th birthday.  John’s life was a testament to the transformative power of ideas. From his pioneering contributions to process theology to his steadfast commitment to environmental sustainability and interfaith dialogue, John lived out the interconnectedness he so profoundly articulated. His vision for a more compassionate, inclusive, and sustainable world has left an indelible mark on academia and countless communities working toward systemic change.  At the Center for Process Studies, together with the Cobb Institute, China Project, Process & Faith, and many allied Cobb-inspired organizations, we are deeply grateful for John’s unparalleled leadership and mentorship. His influence shaped not only our mission but also the lives of everyone fortunate enough to work with him. We are committed to carrying forward his legacy of wisdom, care, and transformation as we continue the work he so passionately began.  As we grieve this tremendous loss, we also celebrate an extraordinary life—a life devoted to fostering harmony, justice, and hope. John taught us that the world is an interconnected process, rich with possibilities for renewal, growth, and flourishing. His example will continue to guide and inspire us for generations to come. In recent conversations with friends John described death as a “natural part of life,” and “the next big adventure.” He added, “I do not expect my death to be a dramatic change in life, but one more gift of life."  The Center for Process Studies is coordinating with John’s family to hold a public memorial service in his honor on February 15 in Claremont, CA. More info will be posted in the days to come.  Our hearts are with John’s family, friends, and the countless individuals whose lives were enriched by his presence. In the weeks ahead, we will share further details about opportunities to honor and celebrate his remarkable legacy. Rest in peace, John. Your light will forever illumine the path toward a better world.  — The Center for Process Studies

* * * * * * *

Touched by the Tenderness

​by John Cobb

"As a soldier in World War II, at one time, I was serving in the Pentagon and living in Washington. I was a pious youth and customarily knelt to pray by my bed before getting into it each night. One night, just after I knelt, I felt my context transformed. I heard nothing. I saw nothing. But I was surrounded and pervaded by a presence. In a way that I had not known to be possible before and have not experienced since, I felt totally loved, totally accepted, totally affirmed. I learned the meaning of “bliss.” The bliss lasted, probably, only a minute or two. Then faded. I can write with some detachment about God loving every creature. I believe that. But my experience of being loved was not just the realization of that. It was more, much more. And I still cannot really understand how the Spirit that loves everything can also make itself felt so intensely and profoundly in an individual case. I almost left it out here, as so often, because I am so deeply shaped by our “nothing but” culture that I am almost embarrassed to admit that I have experienced much “more,” and still can hardly believe it myself. Still, I am deeply, very deeply, grateful to Jesus’ Abba."

- from John Cobb's Confessions

Living Simply

My Frugal, Visionary Mentor

(written prior to his passing in 2024)

John Cobb, my mentor, is nearing his 100th birthday. He is a visionary par excellence. More than any philosopher or theologian I know, John has done two things simultaneously. He has made clear to us impending catastrophes we face as a species (global climate change, violence and the threat of nuclear war, political dysfunction, economic collapse, and widespread loneliness) lest we change our ways of thinking and living in the world. And he has simultaneously sparked a collective movement of hope around the world: the hope of a new kind of civilization, an Ecological Civilization, which can serve the well-being of life.

There are many institutions around the world indebted to him. They include the Center for Process Studies, The Cobb Institute for Community and Practice, the Institute for Ecological Civilization, the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China, the Living Earth movement, Pando Populus, and still more. And there are thousands of students, I among them, likewise indebted. He is not just my mentor; he is our mentor.

If you passed him on the street, you might not notice him. Small in stature, there's nothing flashy about him: no designer clothes, no fancy watches, no air of importance. He would likely be wearing pants and a sweater that he's owned for the last fifty years. On his birthday, he will be celebrated for numerous accomplishments: publishing over a hundred books, pioneering process theology, possessing an amazingly interdisciplinary mind, working in China and other nations, and demonstrating a visionary commitment to ecological civilization. Click here to learn about his academic achievements.

He will also be celebrated for his kindness to people from all walks of life, his unpretentiousness, his indifference to questions of status, and his caring heart. John draws no distinctions between "important" and "unimportant" people; all are important. It's not just John's achievements that inspire people; it's who he is and how he treats them.

In this spirit, I want to celebrate one more aspect of his life: his simple lifestyle. This includes his minimalist wardrobe mentioned above and his living space. When you visit John in his apartment, he doesn't turn on lights because he doesn't want to waste energy; sunlight suffices. John lives simply and frugally, without the trappings of conspicuous consumption. He is a mentor to me and others in this, too.

This frugality is not solely his own design; he inherited it from his parents and his Methodist (Wesleyan) tradition with its commitment to simple living. In principle, he could have learned it from the Benedictines as well, or the Quakers, or the Franciscans, or the Amish. Or, if he lived elsewhere, from Gandhi and from many Buddhist communities. Methodists do not have a monopoly on simple living. But John learned it from his parents, their friends, and the Wesleyans. He chose to follow the way of his elders.

There is authenticity to this choice. In a world where appearances often take precedence, John's lifestyle underscores his humility and care for the world. He lives without ostentation, embodying a down-to-earth demeanor that fosters connection and relatability. People like to be around him because he is so polite and humble. This is one reason he is so popular in China. It's not just his ideas; it's his demeanor.

His lifestyle also carries a counter-cultural and indeed, a Christian message. John seeks to follow Jesus in his daily life. He believes that the God whom Jesus revealed is a God of love, not ostentation. He believes that God's call to each of us and to all of us is to live simply, in community with one another and other creatures, so that others might simply live. You can get an idea of his sense of vocation in the essay below.

But first, a word about process theology. John does not parade process theology as if it were the answer to all questions. He is more committed to the well-being of life than to process theology. But John's commitment to simple living is itself an embodiment of process theology and its idea that mutuality and relationality are at the heart of what is really important in life. John's lifestyle is a reminder that true richness does not lie in the abundance of possessions but in the richness of experiences, relationships, and service to others.

This is the kind of richness, this is the kind of wealth, that we see when the will of God is done on earth as it is in heaven. When we know this love, there is no need for conspicuous consumption or ostentatious display. The love, like the sunlight in his apartment, is enough.

- Jay McDaniel

What is My Vocation?

by John Cobb

The idea of “vocation” has had an important history in the West. The word suggests that we are “called” to do something. It was long used by Christians to emphasize the idea that lifelong service to the church was something that one should not choose for oneself on a practical basis but rather should undertake only out of a definite sense that God called one to be a priest, a monk, or a nun. The fact that these all took vows of celibacy accented their special role.

In the fifteenth century the Protestant Reformers argued that every Christian has a “calling” or “vocation,” and that none of these required celibacy. Serving the institutional church was just one vocation among many. Christians were equally called to be lawyers or doctors, cobblers or merchants. Whatever one’s calling, one should pursue it conscientiously as one’s service of God and neighbor.

This teaching could lead to a high sense of service through one’s daily work. In a feudal society it worked quite well. Every role required both knowledge and skill, and each had its contribution to make to the whole. Emphasizing this could give to all a fuller sense of participation. However, with the shift to industrial capitalism, one’s work was understood as a necessity in order to live. The word “vocation” came to mean for many people little more than a job.

Responding to the Call of the Moment

Nevertheless, the idea that we are “called” can still evoke a deeper meaning. Whitehead radicalized it. He taught that every momentary event is called to be the best that can be achieved in that moment at that place. His terminology was that there is an “initial aim” for every “actual occasion.” Like the traditional “calling” this aim is derived from God. The implications for personal experience are much like those of the original idea of “vocation,” but now generalized through existentialism. I am called, right now, in this and every moment, to be and do the best I can. There is a calling for each moment.

Fostering Healthy Relations with Other People

Often this call focuses on relations with another person. That person may be my spouse, my child, my friend, or a stranger. That personal presence participates in my momentary experience. I am who I am in this moment partly because of the presence of that other person. That presence enriches my experience, and the more open I am to it, and to what it offers, the more I am enriched. To some extent I feel the feelings of the other.

Sometimes it is enough simply to be there with the other. But often one is called to something more. The other may be lonely or anxious or insecure. I am called to respond. Perhaps I need only signal that I am open to listening. That is a step of which most of us are capable even if we often do not take it. We prefer to speak ourselves rather than hear others into speech. Accordingly, others sense that their feelings and needs are not of interest to us. Instead, we want to draw them into our projects. True listening and responding are rare.

This kind of openness to the other does not exclude our speaking. Indeed, sometimes it is only when we share our hesitations and weakness that the other is assured that we can hear without judgment or ridicule. Adjusting our need to be heard and affirmed by others by the recognition of their need to be heard and affirmed is the beginning of ethics.

We are often called by or through the other’s need to do more than listen. Some of the other’s needs are for food and shelter and safety. To some extent, we can and should respond directly, especially when the other is a friend or family member. And there are practical needs of the stranger that also call for immediate practical response.

Fostering Healthy Relations with the Natural World

But the world that surrounds us and grounds our experience moment by moment is not limited to other people. Western ethics has been far too focused on interpersonal relations. Our pets play an important role, as do plants and birds, and insects, and grass, and trees, and soil, and rocks. These “others” offer themselves to us and claim a place in our experience. They too have their needs, massively so today.

The needs of the human stranger and the natural world often lead to another level of ethical action. We can respond only to a very small number of these multifarious needs. Our personal awareness of them is miniscule in comparison with the reality. Recognizing this leads us to a concern for the health of the larger society and the natural environment. We want a human community in which all take responsibility for the wellbeing of all, including the natural world.

As we reflect about ourselves we recognize that who we are and what we are is largely a function of the societies of which we are a part. I am an American, a Californian, a member of a retirement community, a churchman, a theologian, and so forth. My participation in these human societies and the landscapes with which they are connected enables others to identify me and shapes my self-identification as well. My wellbeing is largely a function of the wellbeing of these societies and their natural contexts, and I know that this is true for other members. To whatever extent the societies in which we inescapably live become authentic communities of mutual care we all benefit. While I can directly respond to very few of the needs of my fellow members, through building community and healing the natural environment I can help many indirectly.

Helping build just and sustainable communities

To whatever extent I listen to others, I am already engaged in building community. This is the level at which all can fully participate. But most are called to other, less personal, ways of shaping and strengthening community. This may involve attending meetings, working on committees and accepting particular responsibilities. In some cases it may require me to be active in the politics of the society. Sometimes I may be asked to represent the community to outsiders. In all these cases I am called to seek the well being of the community rather than my private advantage over other members. Occasionally this involves real personal sacrifice. More often my subordination of private interest to that of the community ends up as deeply rewarding to me.

Reflecting upon and advocating compassionate public policies

But responding to the call to serve the community through active participation in its life leads me to understand that this ethical activity raises questions at still another level. Sometimes I see that the community is acting in ways that are self-destructive. In our world this appears especially in the massive damage human communities are inflicting on the natural world. We can envisage acting more wisely. This is the level of policy. A community needs participation in its life whatever its policies may be, but that it keep adapting its policies to new situations and improving them is also of great importance to all its participants. Justice and sustainability are crucial goals of good policy. We are called to support good policies, and that means to involve ourselves in the politics of the communities in which we live. For some, this is their major vocation.

Often one sees that in its zeal to do well, one’s community seeks to advance at the expense of others. My ethical subordination of my private interests to those of the community turns out to be an unethical contribution to harming other communities. This can happen at all levels. In the past, deep convictions have often led religious communities to harm each other.

Critiquing collective Idolatries (e.g. Christianism and American Exceptionalism)

In our world, this ethical complexity appears most often and most painfully in relation to nations. As an American, my vocation includes active citizenship and participation in national life. I am called to strengthen and improve that national life and to protect it from encroachments by others. But I discover that some of what I do, ethically, for the sake of my nation, in the larger scheme of things, harms other peoples. I am called to envision and support national policies that work for the larger good and not simply for the power of my nation over others. I have identified some other collective idolatries that seem to me very dangerous in Deconstructing Modernity.

Analyzing and Challenging Basic Assumptions about the World

When I realize that devotion to my religious community or my nation is harmful to humanity as a whole, I cannot simply solve the problem by trying to be more moral. The general meaning of morality reflects an understanding of religious or national communities that in fact leads them into conflict. Self-sacrificial service of one’s nation may lead to killing those who are self-sacrificially serving their nations.

We are called to ask questions at a different level. What about the assumptions that shape this ordinary understanding of morality as service of the common good of my community. Asking this question may be thought of as another dimension of ethics. We may call it the ethics of thought.

When we realize that doing what seems right and good often ends up harming others, we also realize that something is wrong with our ideas. Often these ideas are widespread in our communities. Daring to question the beliefs that are simply accepted by most people is a special vocation. Many are called to be open to such questioning. For some this challenge to common assumptions is a major vocation.

Once we grasp the importance of criticizing the assumptions that underlie our actions and even our reflections on morality, we can extend this to other areas. There are assumptions that underlie our choices of public policy, our educational practice, our legal system, our social and natural sciences. When we study the history of these areas of thought, it becomes clear that assumptions now recognized as unsatisfactory have played a large role. There is no reason to suppose that those assumptions that now operate are free from problems. The ethics of thought is as important to human beings as the ethics of personal relations, the ethics of community, and the ethics of policy.

Accepting the responsibility to be unpopular or disruptive (for the sake of the common good)

Ethical behavior always has its dangers. When we genuinely listen to a stranger, we may find ourselves drawn into ways of thinking and even of acting that are uncomfortable and disruptive. When we seek the well being of communities, we may antagonize those who personally profit through distortions of community life. When we seek to direct our governments away from self-aggrandizing policies, we are likely to be called unpatriotic. When we question the assumptions that are widespread in our cultures, we upset many who have based their lives and their thought upon them.

But hope for the world lies in ethics, and today this is especially true of the ethics of thought, the vocation to analyze assumptions. Established assumptions about human beings and economic policies, and finance, and international affairs have led humanity to the brink of catastrophe. If we do not challenge and uproot these assumptions, there is little chance of changing behavior sufficiently to save the world.

*

Note: John Cobb has offered his own ideas on the assumptions that need to be challenged. We are called to challenge anthropocentrism, individuality, sense-bound empiricism, small group loyalty, and conventional morality. See Foundations for a New Civilization. He has shared alternative and constructive ideas for living lightly and gently on the planet. See Ten Ideas for Saving the Planet. In addition, and importantly, he offers an analysis of assumptions which, in his view, must be challenged (or de-constructed) in our time. See Deconstructing Modernity.

​God as Abba

Excerpts from God as Abba, used with John Cobb's permission

​Two Problems with "God" as Too Often Conceived

​​For me, God is of central importance to life and thought. As a boy I found that my conviction fitted comfortably with widely shared belief. I did not agree with everything I heard people say about God, but the problem with “God-language” was not much different fromother instances of disagreement and confusion.

Today the situation has changed. God remains of central importance for me. But I no longer find that belief to fit comfortably into my cultural context. On the contrary, many people are both skeptical that the word God has any reference and very uncertain what that reference would be like if it existed at all. In addition, the word now has a strongly negative connotation for many thoughtful and sensitive people, and I often find myself upset by how it is used. If the problem were simply linguistic, we could solve it easily. Just use another term: Creator, Goddess, Great Spirit, Almighty, Yahweh. Using other names sometimes helps, but the problem is deeper. What has happened?

One problem is intellectual. From the outset of modernity, belief in the biblical God has been problematic. The biblical God is operative in both nature and history, whereas modernity, from its beginning, denied that God was a factor in what happened in the natural world. That is, it asserts that if you are trying to explain any natural event, you are not allowed to attribute any role to God.

At first, there was one exception. The world seemed so wonderfully ordered that it could not be thought of as coming into existence on its own or by chance. Most people assumed that it was created by an intelligent and powerful being, and did not hesitate to call that being “God.” Scientists found that the world was governed by laws, so that the Creator was also the Lawgiver. Some religious people thought that every now and again the God who created the laws intervened and caused something to happen that did not obey them. Thus there were supernaturalists, but the default position was “deism,” that is, the belief that God’s only relation to nature was the one act of creation and the imposing of natural laws.

At the same time, everyone assumed that human beings were not part of the nature from which God was excluded. Opinions differed on how God was related to human beings. The devout could picture the relation as quite intimate, but the dominant culture encouraged the idea that God had created human beings and had also given them rules to live by. Unlike plants and animals, people might choose not to obey these rules. After death those who violated them were punished, whereas those who obeyed them were rewarded.

Deistic thinking still continues, but it has far less support than in the earlier period. It was deeply shaken by Charles Darwin’s demonstration that the world we now know developed in a natural evolutionary way from a much simpler beginning. God was no longer needed to explain the remarkably complex and beautiful world we have around us; it could be explained by natural causes. Equally important was that human beings are fully part of this evolving nature. If God is excluded from playing any role in natural events, then God is excluded from playing any role in human events. The default position now is atheism.

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Credibility has not been the only problem we theists faced. For many people “God” has become an offensive idea because so many terrible things have been done by his followers. I grew up believing that God was always good and loving. I knew that human beings, even those who worshiped God, had done some very bad things, but I supposed that this was an aberration and that we Christians had repented and were seeking peace and justice everywhere.

However, along with many others, I came to see history differently. In the name of God, Christians had persecuted Jews for most of Christian history. This persecution had reached new heights in what we considered a Christian country, Germany. True, the Nazis were not Christians, but they could show the continuity of their anti-Jewish teachings and actions with statements of Christian leaders, and the opposition to Nazi anti-Judaism on the part of Christians was weak.

I learned that in the century-long theft of the New World from its inhabitants, many Christian missionaries had played embarrassing roles. I learned that, indeed, even the more recent missions to Africa and Asia had often supported colonial exploitation of the people. Even the better missions were often tainted with the sense of Western superiority, and with condescension toward those to whom they were witnessing. More generally,

More generally, I learned that over the centuries the churches were usually allied with the rich and powerful. I learned that the enslavement of nonwhite races had been supported as God’s will. I discovered that earlier members of my own family had written pious Christian books in defense of slavery. Even many of those leaders to whom we looked with admiration, such as Abraham Lincoln, had been racists. The Bible that seemed evidently to oppose such racism had been widely and successfully used to justify it. (John Cobb)

Rediscovering God through Jesus

​The purpose of this book is to propose that it is time for thoughtful Christians to free themselves from acquiescence to the late modern worldview. My conviction is that the biblical worldview in general, and the worldview of Jesus and Paul in particular, is superior. Of course, there are many respects in which their worldview is out of date. But bringing it up to date is much easier and more fruitful than trying to make the modern worldview adequate to our needs. We certainly have a great deal of knowledge about astronomy today that is far more accurate than the beliefs that prevailed in New Testament times. But adjusting to that information is no threat to the basic insights of Jesus or Paul.

We know now that the world is composed of quantum events, a view that is vastly different from ideas in the minds of any New Testament writer. But their worldview was basically one that gave primacy to events. That events characterize the world at microscopic levels is not an uncongenial idea, whereas the modern world is not able to assimilate it. And above all, the idea that events are both subjective and objective would pose no problem to the ancients, whereas the moderns have to deny it, conceal it, or treat it as an anomaly.I have focused on what is central for Jesus, the reality and purposes of Abba. I have wanted to show that belief in Abba makes a lot of sense today.

Of course, I have not proved the existence of Abba; indeed, it is not really possible to prove the existence of anything. I cannot prove that I exist, but we know much that we cannot prove. We cannot prove that there were any events before the present moment. How could we do so?

But I for one do not doubt that many things have happened, and I doubt that you are seriously doubtful. Although we cannot prove anything, we can disprove a good many things. We can disprove the indivisibility of what we still call atoms, named when we thought they were indivisible. Science has disproved the astronomy generally accepted in New Testament times. It has disproved the idea that the world is just six thousand years old.

I believe we can disprove some beliefs about God as well. For example, the systematic implications of the belief that God is all-powerful and the belief that God is all-beneficent contradict each other, and their combination is incompatible with the historical facts. It is very sad when those who consider themselves followers of Jesus spend their time defending ideas that are indefensible and are not found in the Bible. The idea that the Bible is inerrant is another belief that is easily disproved. So is the idea that Jesus and Paul were supporters of what are today called “family values.”

The basic argument of this book is that, although many ideas associated with God and Christian faith have been disproved, Jesus’ teaching about Abba has not. On the contrary, it is coherent with our experience and responds well to the needs of the world in our day. It can be tested against personal experience. I commend it enthusiastically.

For my part, I strive to be a faithful disciple of Jesus. There are those who follow Jesus without sharing his belief in Abba. I admire them, but I am convinced that the effort to follow Jesus while ignoring his Abba has a tragic character. It usually results from being socialized into a culture and a way of thinking that is not deserving of commitment. I am convinced that a much deeper and more joyful faithfulness is possible if we seek to relate to Abba as Jesus did. I commend a faithfulness to Jesus that shares Jesus’ confidence in the love and empowering power of Abba.

"Abba cares much more about the future of the world than about who believes in him and who does not."

​But loving an omnipotent God, or a morally judgmental God, or an exclusivist God, or a God who demands sacrifice in order to forgive, can be harmful. Abba is none of those things. I believe that loving Abba is the best hope for the world’s future, and loving Abba means working with Abba....Abba cares much more about the future of the world than about who believes in him and who does not. We who love Abba will eagerly cooperate with those who do not, if they are working to save the world. But today we may rejoice that the leading voice in the movement to save the world comes from one who loves Abba: Pope Francis. It is my hope that my tiny effort to renew and strengthen the worship of Jesus’ Abba will also build support for the great work of Pope Francis. (John Cobb)

"Abba is always present in the world working for good."

​​In sum, with regard to all that I have said thus far, I believe that we experience in some usually faint and fragmentary way Abba’s presence with us, working in all things for good. Abba’s work is most effective if we attend to it, open ourselves to it, align ourselves with it. This is part of the meaning of faith. Our resulting thoughts and actions sometimes have effects beyond our intentions. We can experience ourselves to be participating in Abba’s salvific work in the world. And we can sense the companionship of Abba as well as of others who work with Abba. We can know something of the divine commonwealth, the presence of which Jesus announced. (John Cobb)

"Abba is present even in the cells in our bodies."

​​​I am repeatedly surprised by how rapidly wounds heal when the body is given the chance. Doctors often comment that their medicines do not heal us. They counter hostile forces in the body. When these are removed, nature works its healing power. When thought and emotions are healthy and supportive, the healing work of nature is speeded and strengthened. For me, there is no “nature” from which Abba is absent. That does not identify God and nature. There is much in nature other than Abba. But I think that it is Abba’s presence in nature that makes for healing. I believe that Abba is in every cell in the body calling it to do its part for its own well-being and for the well-being of the whole.

- John Cobb

Renewing Revelation: Renewal of Expiation & Fellowship, Part 1/2

 

Renewing Revelation: Renewal of Expiation & Fellowship by ChatGPT, 12.01.2024

Renewing Revelation:

Renewal of Expiation & Fellowship

Part 1/2

I thought I'd enlist ChatGPT in eliciting the motifs of expiation (atonement and cleansing) and fellowship in the book of Revelation. This would be part 1 of a two-part series. The next and last part will recontextualize part 1's discussion here in terms of process-based theology. Enjoy.

R.E. Slater

December1, 2024

Question 1

RES: Explain the book of Revelation through the motifs of expiation and fellowship between God, people, and Earth.

ChatGPT

The Book of Revelation, often viewed as a mysterious and apocalyptic text, can be deeply illuminated by exploring its motifs of expiation (atonement and cleansing) and fellowship (harmonious communion between God, humanity, and creation). Here's how these themes permeate the text:

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1. Expiation: Cleansing and Renewal

Revelation portrays the world as deeply corrupted by sin, injustice, and idolatry. The motif of expiation appears in the following key ways:

• The Blood of the Lamb:
  Jesus Christ, depicted as the slain Lamb, is central to expiation. His sacrificial death cleanses humanity from sin and opens the way to God's presence (Rev. 5:9; 7:14). This cleansing allows for a purified people to stand before God in righteousness.

• Judgment as Purification:
  The plagues, trumpets, and bowls of wrath (Rev. 6–16) symbolize not merely destruction but a cleansing process. They are judgments that expose evil, purge sin, and prepare the way for the new creation.

• The New Jerusalem:
  The holy city (Rev. 21:2-27) is described as entirely pure, with nothing unclean entering it. This reflects the completion of expiation—creation and humanity are fully cleansed and restored to their intended glory.

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2. Fellowship: Communion Between God, People, and Earth

Revelation is ultimately a story of restored relationships—between God, humanity, and creation. This theme unfolds as follows:

• The Throne Room Vision:
  In chapters 4–5, Revelation depicts a heavenly fellowship. God is worshiped by creatures from every part of creation. This scene reflects the cosmic order as it was meant to be: God at the center, with creation in harmonious worship.

• The Role of Earth:
  The Earth is not discarded but renewed. Revelation 21:1 speaks of a "new heaven and a new earth," emphasizing that God's fellowship with humanity includes the created order. The imagery of the tree of life (Rev. 22:2), whose leaves bring healing to the nations, highlights the interconnectedness of humanity and Earth in God's plan.

• God Dwelling Among People:
  The climax of Revelation is the declaration:
  “Behold, the dwelling place of God is with man. He will dwell with them, and they will be his people, and God himself will be with them as their God” (Rev. 21:3).
  This is a vision of perfect fellowship—a restored Eden where God and humanity live in intimate relationship.

• Healing of Nations:
  Revelation’s vision of fellowship is not just individual but communal and global. Nations, previously at odds, are reconciled, and their cultures are brought into the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21:24). This is fellowship on a cosmic scale.

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3. Integration: Expiation Leading to Fellowship

The relationship between expiation and fellowship is cyclical and dynamic in Revelation:

• Expiation as a Path to Fellowship:
  The cleansing of sin through Christ and the judgments prepares humanity and creation for perfect communion with God. Without expiation, fellowship would be impossible.

• Fellowship as the Goal of Expiation:
  The ultimate purpose of cleansing is not destruction but reconciliation. God’s intent is not to annihilate creation but to renew it so that His love and presence can dwell among all things.

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Practical Implications for Today

Revelation, through these motifs, calls readers to participate in the process of expiation and fellowship:

1. Living in Purity: Believers are invited to "wash their robes" (Rev. 7:14; 22:14), aligning their lives with Christ's redemptive work.
2. Promoting Reconciliation: The vision of healed nations challenges us to work toward justice, peace, and ecological stewardship.
3. Anticipating God's Presence: The promise of God dwelling among us inspires hope and perseverance, even in the face of trials.

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Revelation thus offers a profound vision where expiation leads to ultimate fellowship—God’s love renewing all things, creating a holy communion of God, humanity, and the Earth in eternal harmony.

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Renewing Revelation: Renewal of Expiation & Fellowship by ChatGPT, 12.01.2024

Question 2

RES: How does apocalypticism fit in with its literary history?

ChatGPT

Apocalypticism, a worldview and literary genre rooted in unveiling divine mysteries about the future or ultimate reality, fits within a rich literary history as a response to specific cultural, historical, and religious contexts. Its themes of cosmic conflict, divine judgment, and ultimate restoration reflect a deep engagement with human questions of justice, hope, and the meaning of history. Here’s how it fits into its literary history:

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1. Origins in Hebrew Prophecy and Wisdom Traditions

Apocalypticism emerged in the post-exilic period of Israel’s history, building on earlier prophetic and wisdom traditions:

• Prophetic Roots:
  Apocalyptic themes are prefigured in the prophetic literature of the Hebrew Bible. Prophets like Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel employ symbolic imagery, visions, and cosmic language to describe God's judgment and restoration (e.g., Isaiah’s “new heavens and a new earth” in Isa. 65:17 or Ezekiel’s temple vision in Ezek. 40–48).

• Daniel as a Proto-Apocalypse:
  The Book of Daniel (written during the Maccabean period, c. 2nd century BCE) is often considered the first full apocalyptic work. Its visions (e.g., the statue in Daniel 2 and the beasts in Daniel 7) use symbolic imagery and angelic interpretation to reveal God’s ultimate plan for history and the vindication of His people under foreign oppression.

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2. Development in Second Temple Judaism

The Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE) was a fertile era for apocalyptic thought, reflecting the experiences of Jewish communities under foreign domination (Persian, Greek, and Roman empires):

• Jewish Apocalyptic Literature:
  Texts like 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, and the Book of Jubilees further develop apocalyptic motifs such as:
  • Cosmic dualism (good vs. evil).
  • Angelic mediation (angels as interpreters).
  • Eschatological hope (future deliverance and judgment).
    These works reflect the anxieties and hopes of oppressed communities, often framing history as a divinely guided narrative with an ultimate resolution.

• Themes of Crisis and Hope:
  Apocalypticism often arises during times of crisis, offering oppressed groups a theological framework for understanding their suffering and envisioning divine intervention.

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3. Integration into Early Christianity

Apocalypticism heavily influenced the development of early Christian thought and literature:

• Jesus’ Teachings:
  Many of Jesus’ sayings in the Gospels have apocalyptic overtones, such as references to the coming of the Son of Man (Mark 13:26) and the establishment of God’s kingdom.

• The Book of Revelation:
  Revelation epitomizes Christian apocalypticism. Written during a time of Roman persecution, it adapts Jewish apocalyptic imagery (e.g., beasts, heavenly visions, angelic mediators) to convey a message of hope and perseverance, emphasizing Christ’s victory and the ultimate renewal of creation.

• Pauline Letters:
  Paul’s eschatological teachings (e.g., 1 Thess. 4:13-18) reflect apocalyptic ideas about the resurrection of the dead, the return of Christ, and the transformation of the world.

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4. Influence on Medieval and Later Christian Thought

Apocalypticism continued to shape Western literary and theological traditions well into the Middle Ages and beyond:

• Medieval Apocalypticism:
  Interpretations of Revelation informed eschatological speculation during the Crusades, the Black Death, and other historical crises, with figures like Joachim of Fiore developing elaborate systems for interpreting history through an apocalyptic lens.

• Reformation and Beyond:
  Apocalyptic imagery was central to Protestant critiques of the Catholic Church (e.g., identifying the Pope with the Antichrist). Similarly, apocalypticism influenced movements like Puritan millennialism and American revivalism.

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5. Modern and Contemporary Uses

In the modern era, apocalypticism has evolved but remains influential in both religious and secular contexts:

• Religious Movements:
  Apocalyptic themes are prominent in contemporary Christian eschatology (e.g., dispensationalism) and other religious traditions, offering frameworks for interpreting global crises (e.g., environmental collapse, political unrest).

• Secular Apocalypticism:
  Apocalyptic imagery has been adopted in secular literature, film, and popular culture to explore themes of existential threat and human resilience (e.g., dystopian novels, climate fiction).

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Summary of Apocalypticism’s Literary Legacy

Apocalypticism fits into its literary history as a genre that evolves in response to the human quest for justice, meaning, and hope amid crisis. It bridges the prophetic and mythic traditions of antiquity, the theological innovations of early Christianity, and the speculative imagination of modern culture, revealing a deep, enduring need to grapple with the ultimate questions of existence and history.

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Renewing Revelation: Renewal of Expiation & Fellowship by ChatGPT, 12.01.2024

Question 3

RES: How does apocalypticism fit in with literary history?

ChatGPT

Eschatological apocalypticism, which focuses on the ultimate end of history and the resolution of cosmic and moral conflict, fits seamlessly into the broader history of apocalyptic thought as its most distinctive and defining feature. It represents an evolution of earlier religious and philosophical ideas about divine justice, often emerging during periods of intense crisis or oppression. Below is an analysis of how eschatological apocalypticism aligns with apocalyptic history:

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1. The Origins of Eschatological Apocalypticism in Jewish Tradition

Eschatological apocalypticism first crystallized in the Second Temple period, where it diverged from earlier prophetic literature. It reflected heightened expectations of divine intervention to resolve historical injustices:

• From Prophetic to Apocalyptic Eschatology:
  Prophets like Isaiah and Ezekiel envisioned a future restoration of Israel, but their focus was often national and historical. In contrast, eschatological apocalypticism introduced:
  • A cosmic dualism, where history culminates in a final battle between good and evil.
  • A universal scope, extending beyond Israel to all nations and creation.
  • A focus on personal resurrection and final judgment as key features of the end.

• Key Texts:
  The Book of Daniel (2nd century BCE) is a pivotal example, with its visions of successive empires culminating in God’s eternal kingdom (Daniel 7). Similarly, 1 Enoch expanded on themes of cosmic judgment and the ultimate fate of the righteous and wicked.

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2. Eschatological Apocalypticism in Early Christianity

Christianity emerged as an apocalyptic movement deeply shaped by Jewish eschatological expectations, but with a decisive focus on Jesus as the fulfillment of those hopes.

• Jesus’ Apocalyptic Teachings:
  Jesus preached the imminence of the "kingdom of God" (Mark 1:15) and used eschatological-apocalyptic language (e.g., the coming of the Son of Man in Mark 13, Matthew 24). His resurrection was interpreted by early Christians as the beginning of the eschatological age.

• The Book of Revelation:
  The ultimate Christian expression of eschatological apocalypticism, Revelation weaves together Jewish apocalyptic imagery to depict the final battle (Armageddon), judgment, and the establishment of the New Jerusalem. Its focus on the destruction of evil, the resurrection of the dead, and the renewal of creation underscores the eschatological focus.

• Paul’s Letters:
  Paul’s eschatology (e.g., 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18; 1 Corinthians 15) reflects the early Christian belief in an imminent end. He emphasizes personal resurrection, the return of Christ, and the transformation of the cosmos.

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3. Medieval and Post-Medieval Interpretations of Eschatological Apocalypticism

In the medieval period, eschatological apocalypticism adapted to new contexts, often blending with political and social movements:

• Joachim of Fiore and Historical Eschatology:
  Joachim of Fiore (12th century) divided history into three ages (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), each culminating in divine renewal. His framework profoundly influenced later apocalyptic thinking.

• Millennialism and Social Movements:
  Apocalyptic movements like the Taborites and Anabaptists interpreted eschatology as not only a future event but also as a call for immediate societal transformation.

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4. Modern Eschatological Apocalypticism

In modern times, eschatological apocalypticism continues to thrive, often shaped by specific religious, political, or environmental concerns:

• Christian Dispensationalism:
  Emerging in the 19th century, this theological system emphasizes the eschatological timeline of Christ’s return, tribulation, and millennium, based on a literal reading of Revelation and Daniel.

• Secular Appropriations:
  Secularized versions of eschatological apocalypticism explore humanity’s ultimate fate through themes like nuclear war, climate change, and technological dystopias in literature and film.

• Ecological Eschatology:
  Some theological movements interpret eschatological apocalypticism in light of environmental concerns, emphasizing the renewal of creation and humanity’s responsibility as stewards of the Earth.

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5. The Role of Eschatological Apocalypticism in Apocalyptic History

Eschatological apocalypticism plays a central role in apocalyptic history because it provides a definitive resolution to the cosmic and moral conflicts at the heart of the apocalyptic worldview. It differs from earlier forms of apocalypticism in its scope and finality:

• Cosmic Scope:
  Eschatological apocalypticism is universal, addressing the fate of all creation, not just a single nation or group.

• Focus on Finality:
  It offers a vision of the ultimate triumph of good over evil, divine justice, and the fulfillment of God’s plan.

• Hope Amid Crisis:
  Historically, eschatological apocalypticism has given oppressed and suffering communities hope, framing their struggles as temporary preludes to divine vindication.

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Conclusion

Eschatological apocalypticism fits into apocalyptic history as the genre's culminating expression, addressing ultimate questions about the end of history, the fate of humanity, and the renewal of creation. It integrates earlier prophetic traditions and Second Temple Jewish thought while shaping the trajectory of Christian theology and influencing broader cultural narratives about the future.

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Question 4

RES: Run the theme of apocalyptic eschatology throughout the Bible from Genesis to revelation.

ChatGPT

Apocalyptic eschatology—the theme of ultimate resolution, divine intervention, and cosmic renewal—runs throughout the Bible, forming a coherent thread from Genesis to Revelation. Though it is most explicit in apocalyptic texts like Daniel and Revelation, it is embedded in various ways in the entire biblical narrative. Here's how this theme unfolds across the Bible:

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1. Genesis: The Beginning and the Eschatological Promise

While Genesis focuses on creation and humanity's origins, its narrative introduces themes central to apocalyptic eschatology:

• Creation and the Fall:
  Genesis 1–3 portrays God's perfect creation, which is disrupted by sin and rebellion. The curse on creation (Gen. 3:17–19) sets the stage for the need for ultimate redemption and renewal—a theme fulfilled in Revelation's depiction of a new heaven and earth (Rev. 21:1–5).

• The Proto-Evangelium (Genesis 3:15):
  God's promise of a "seed" who will crush the serpent’s head prefigures Christ’s eschatological victory over evil (Rev. 20:10). This points to the final defeat of sin and Satan.

• Noah and the Flood (Genesis 6–9):
  The flood is both a judgment and a renewal, foreshadowing apocalyptic themes of divine intervention, destruction of evil, and a new beginning for creation.

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2. The Patriarchs and the Covenant

The promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob carry eschatological undertones:

• Blessing for All Nations (Genesis 12:1–3):
  The Abrahamic covenant anticipates a future where God's blessing extends to all peoples, fulfilled eschatologically in Revelation when the nations are gathered before God (Rev. 7:9–10; 21:24).

• Joseph's Story (Genesis 37–50):
  Joseph’s life, with its descent into suffering and eventual exaltation, reflects the apocalyptic pattern of tribulation followed by restoration, prefiguring Christ and the ultimate resolution of history.

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3. The Exodus and Mosaic Covenant

The Exodus narrative introduces themes of deliverance and divine rule that resonate with apocalyptic eschatology:

• God as Deliverer:
  The liberation of Israel from Egypt foreshadows God’s ultimate eschatological deliverance of His people from sin and death (Rev. 15:3, the song of Moses and the Lamb).

• The Promised Land:
  The journey to Canaan symbolizes the eschatological hope of entering God’s eternal kingdom.

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4. The Prophets: The Rise of Eschatological Apocalypticism

The prophetic writings develop apocalyptic eschatology through visions of judgment, restoration, and a future kingdom:

• Isaiah:
  Isaiah envisions a new heavens and earth (Isa. 65:17; 66:22), the defeat of death (Isa. 25:8), and the gathering of the nations to worship God (Isa. 2:2–4). These themes reappear in Revelation.

• Ezekiel:
  Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek. 37) points to resurrection, a key feature of eschatological hope. His temple vision (Ezek. 40–48) prefigures the eschatological dwelling of God with humanity (Rev. 21:3).

• Daniel:
  Daniel introduces fully developed apocalyptic eschatology, with its symbolic visions of earthly kingdoms, the Son of Man receiving dominion (Dan. 7:13–14), and the ultimate triumph of God’s kingdom.

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5. The Writings: Psalms and Wisdom Literature

Even in poetic and wisdom literature, eschatological themes surface:

• Psalms:
  Many psalms anticipate the eschatological reign of God (e.g., Psalm 2, 22, 72). They celebrate the hope of a future kingdom where God’s justice and peace prevail.

• Job:
  Job’s affirmation, "I know that my Redeemer lives, and at the last He will stand upon the earth" (Job 19:25), reflects an early expression of personal eschatological hope.

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6. The Gospels: The Kingdom of God as Eschatological Fulfillment

Jesus' ministry marks the inbreaking of eschatological hope:

• Inauguration of the Kingdom:
  Jesus proclaims the arrival of God’s kingdom (Mark 1:15) as both a present reality and future fulfillment, blending realized and future eschatology.

• Apocalyptic Discourse:
  In Matthew 24–25 and parallels, Jesus describes the end of the age, the return of the Son of Man, and the final judgment, drawing directly from Jewish apocalyptic traditions.

• The Cross and Resurrection:
  Jesus’ death and resurrection are eschatological events, defeating sin and death (1 Cor. 15:54–57) and inaugurating the new creation.

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7. The Epistles: Eschatological Hope for the Church

The letters of the New Testament emphasize living in anticipation of the eschaton:

• Paul’s Theology:
  Paul develops a robust eschatology, focusing on Christ’s return, the resurrection of believers, and the renewal of creation (1 Thess. 4:13–18; Rom. 8:18–25).

• Peter and John:
  These writers encourage believers to live holy lives in light of the coming new heavens and earth (2 Peter 3:10–13) and Christ’s ultimate victory (1 John 3:2–3).

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8. Revelation: The Culmination of Apocalyptic Eschatology

Revelation brings apocalyptic eschatology to its climax:

• The Cosmic Battle:
  Revelation depicts the ultimate defeat of Satan, sin, and death (Rev. 19–20), fulfilling the promise of Genesis 3:15. This cosmic conflict reflects the culmination of history, as God’s justice triumphs over all evil.

• The New Creation:
  In Revelation 21–22, the vision of a new heaven and earth fulfills the eschatological hope first hinted at in Genesis and developed throughout Scripture. The New Jerusalem, with God dwelling among His people, symbolizes the restoration of the Edenic ideal. This is a world where death, sorrow, and pain are no more, fulfilling the promises of Isaiah 65:17 and echoed in 1 Corinthians 15:54.

• Universal Fellowship:
  The nations, once divided and in rebellion, are now gathered in unity before God (Rev. 7:9; 21:24–26). This reflects the fulfillment of the Abrahamic promise that all nations would be blessed.

• Final Resolution:
  Revelation ends with a profound eschatological closure: the curse of sin is undone (Rev. 22:3), the redeemed live eternally in God’s presence, and creation is fully restored to its intended purpose.

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This culmination ties the biblical narrative together, showing how apocalyptic eschatology weaves through Scripture, from the origins of creation in Genesis to the renewal of all things in Revelation. Let me know if you'd like further clarification or additions!

The Coming Apocalypse! Jewish and

Christian Views of the End of the World

Bart D. Ehrman