Quotes & Sayings


We, and creation itself, actualize the possibilities of the God who sustains the world, towards becoming in the world in a fuller, more deeper way. - R.E. Slater

There is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and actions have [consequential effects upon] the world around us. - Process Metaphysician Alfred North Whitehead

Kurt Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem says (i) all closed systems are unprovable within themselves and, that (ii) all open systems are rightly understood as incomplete. - R.E. Slater

The most true thing about you is what God has said to you in Christ, "You are My Beloved." - Tripp Fuller

The God among us is the God who refuses to be God without us, so great is God's Love. - Tripp Fuller

According to some Christian outlooks we were made for another world. Perhaps, rather, we were made for this world to recreate, reclaim, redeem, and renew unto God's future aspiration by the power of His Spirit. - R.E. Slater

Our eschatological ethos is to love. To stand with those who are oppressed. To stand against those who are oppressing. It is that simple. Love is our only calling and Christian Hope. - R.E. Slater

Secularization theory has been massively falsified. We don't live in an age of secularity. We live in an age of explosive, pervasive religiosity... an age of religious pluralism. - Peter L. Berger

Exploring the edge of life and faith in a post-everything world. - Todd Littleton

I don't need another reason to believe, your love is all around for me to see. – Anon

Thou art our need; and in giving us more of thyself thou givest us all. - Khalil Gibran, Prayer XXIII

Be careful what you pretend to be. You become what you pretend to be. - Kurt Vonnegut

Religious beliefs, far from being primary, are often shaped and adjusted by our social goals. - Jim Forest

We become who we are by what we believe and can justify. - R.E. Slater

People, even more than things, need to be restored, renewed, revived, reclaimed, and redeemed; never throw out anyone. – Anon

Certainly, God's love has made fools of us all. - R.E. Slater

An apocalyptic Christian faith doesn't wait for Jesus to come, but for Jesus to become in our midst. - R.E. Slater

Christian belief in God begins with the cross and resurrection of Jesus, not with rational apologetics. - Eberhard Jüngel, Jürgen Moltmann

Our knowledge of God is through the 'I-Thou' encounter, not in finding God at the end of a syllogism or argument. There is a grave danger in any Christian treatment of God as an object. The God of Jesus Christ and Scripture is irreducibly subject and never made as an object, a force, a power, or a principle that can be manipulated. - Emil Brunner

“Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh” means "I will be that who I have yet to become." - God (Ex 3.14) or, conversely, “I AM who I AM Becoming.”

Our job is to love others without stopping to inquire whether or not they are worthy. - Thomas Merton

The church is God's world-changing social experiment of bringing unlikes and differents to the Eucharist/Communion table to share life with one another as a new kind of family. When this happens, we show to the world what love, justice, peace, reconciliation, and life together is designed by God to be. The church is God's show-and-tell for the world to see how God wants us to live as a blended, global, polypluralistic family united with one will, by one Lord, and baptized by one Spirit. – Anon

The cross that is planted at the heart of the history of the world cannot be uprooted. - Jacques Ellul

The Unity in whose loving presence the universe unfolds is inside each person as a call to welcome the stranger, protect animals and the earth, respect the dignity of each person, think new thoughts, and help bring about ecological civilizations. - John Cobb & Farhan A. Shah

If you board the wrong train it is of no use running along the corridors of the train in the other direction. - Dietrich Bonhoeffer

God's justice is restorative rather than punitive; His discipline is merciful rather than punishing; His power is made perfect in weakness; and His grace is sufficient for all. – Anon

Our little [biblical] systems have their day; they have their day and cease to be. They are but broken lights of Thee, and Thou, O God art more than they. - Alfred Lord Tennyson

We can’t control God; God is uncontrollable. God can’t control us; God’s love is uncontrolling! - Thomas Jay Oord

Life in perspective but always in process... as we are relational beings in process to one another, so life events are in process in relation to each event... as God is to Self, is to world, is to us... like Father, like sons and daughters, like events... life in process yet always in perspective. - R.E. Slater

To promote societal transition to sustainable ways of living and a global society founded on a shared ethical framework which includes respect and care for the community of life, ecological integrity, universal human rights, respect for diversity, economic justice, democracy, and a culture of peace. - The Earth Charter Mission Statement

Christian humanism is the belief that human freedom, individual conscience, and unencumbered rational inquiry are compatible with the practice of Christianity or even intrinsic in its doctrine. It represents a philosophical union of Christian faith and classical humanist principles. - Scott Postma

It is never wise to have a self-appointed religious institution determine a nation's moral code. The opportunities for moral compromise and failure are high; the moral codes and creeds assuredly racist, discriminatory, or subjectively and religiously defined; and the pronouncement of inhumanitarian political objectives quite predictable. - R.E. Slater

God's love must both center and define the Christian faith and all religious or human faiths seeking human and ecological balance in worlds of subtraction, harm, tragedy, and evil. - R.E. Slater

In Whitehead’s process ontology, we can think of the experiential ground of reality as an eternal pulse whereby what is objectively public in one moment becomes subjectively prehended in the next, and whereby the subject that emerges from its feelings then perishes into public expression as an object (or “superject”) aiming for novelty. There is a rhythm of Being between object and subject, not an ontological division. This rhythm powers the creative growth of the universe from one occasion of experience to the next. This is the Whiteheadian mantra: “The many become one and are increased by one.” - Matthew Segall

Without Love there is no Truth. And True Truth is always Loving. There is no dichotomy between these terms but only seamless integration. This is the premier centering focus of a Processual Theology of Love. - R.E. Slater

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Note: Generally I do not respond to commentary. I may read the comments but wish to reserve my time to write (or write from the comments I read). Instead, I'd like to see our community help one another and in the helping encourage and exhort each of us towards Christian love in Christ Jesus our Lord and Savior. - re slater

Monday, November 5, 2012

Multi-Cultural Pluralism: The Changing State of U.S. Ethnicity

 The changing state of US ethnicity



2 November 2012 Last updated at 20:25 ET

The US has undergone many different immigration trends since the 15th Century, with various ethnic groups rising and falling over time.

This video looks at how the US population has defined itself within government census data, where US immigrants have originated from in the past, and how these patterns could change in the future.

Produced by David Gordon


* * * * * * * * * * * * 


What does this mean for Christianity?

Emergent Christianity acknowledges, and widely accepts the fact, that to live in today's postmodern world is to embrace multi-cultural pluralism openly, publicly, and willingly. To realize that the many different people groups coming across America's borders are coming for opportunities their homeland could not (or, would not) provide - whether food, water and shelter; a practical education and livable wage; the benefits of freedom and liberty from fear, abuse, harm and destruction; the active protection to worship as one believes without fear of reprisal; and for many, many other reasons innumerable. Here, in America, the Constitution of the United States binds one-and-all to these many civil liberties and more, and it is to the church of Jesus Christ to likewise shoulder the burden to welcome and accept all who come.

Consequently, the gospel of Jesus was never intended to only the predominant people group of any nation, but to all people groups, tribes, and nations of every country. As such, Emergent Christianity welcomes the opportunity to listen and participate with all religions and faiths in whatever manner possible so that every man, woman or child, might have the additional opportunity to hear about Jesus. This may mean that traditional practices and messages of the Christian faith be altered from a Western flavor to one more Eastern, Asian, or Islamic. Hence, orthodox practices must become more accommodating - if not outrightly transformed - in dress and worship style, language and expression, practices and heritage.

This would also include the theology of the church... not in content but in translation. For example, rather than speaking in a doctrinal language requiring theological precision and historical acumen as we are use to in our Western traditions, perhaps we might adjust telling the gospel through the many story forms provided by Narrative Theology that can easily transform the biblical language into readily adaptable cultural narratives. That is, by fashioning salvific stories created within the cultural language, idioms, and worship styles of that minority's heritage so that the gospel of Jesus might become truly missional rather than culturally conversional.... By this is meant that the missionizing group must be willing to resist the cultural urge to transform another culture into its own style of worship and way of thinking. But rather allow minorities to adapt the gospel into their own predominant language and practices. To understand that successful evangelism does not mean Americanizing or Westernizing new converts to Jesus. But allows new converts their own assimilative practices of apprehending Jesus in their own ways and observances that is meaningful to them. That to missionize a minority people group is to actively promote the transformational state of non-native assimilation. And in the bargin discover a depth of Christian fellowship few experience between dissimilar peoples and cultures.

Furthermore, America's history has been no less awash in cultural movement than what has been experienced by other nations across all the continents of the world. If anything, history has shown how people groups have created societal upheaval and mobile disbursement when incoming refugees have fled for help, assistance, and protection. And it has been to a nation's test of strength and honor to proffer aide and assistance in whatever way that it can to those fleeing death and harm. By actively promoting the humanitarian equality of displaced populations is to strengthen a nation rather than divide it. To share the wealth of stability, protection, community, equality, and service, to those desperately in need of life, liberty and justice, is to that nation's honor and call. Yes, it will be messy. Yes, it will create displacement and stretch resources. And yes, wisdom will be required against a political will that may secede from the task at hand. But if a government and its church communities rise to the gospel challenges of compassionate welcome, aide and cultural respect, it will create a three-corded union unbreakable and strong.

And so must the believer in Christ be as welcoming and gracious to those aliens and strangers amongst us wishing to adopt our homeland as if they were our own kinsmen. And we were their own adoptive relatives. For the human race is but one tribe of many people. Let us learn to revel in our differences and be united as one people before the God of all nations seeking to aide and assist as we can. Jesus once said, "Go out into all the world and make disciples."We now have the added blessing that the "world" has come into the church's own backyard and must recognize that the "task is no less the same as it ever was." "That the mission of the church is the same as it ever was." "And that the message of salvation is still the same as it ever was." But that our community values and attitudes can, and must, changed towards welcoming all in, be they nomads or unwanted, spurned or unloved, refugee or stranger. Let the followers of Jesus be about the tasks of sharing the love of Christ to all the world without regard to color of skin or practice of belief.

Jesus' love and atonement was colorless and without discrimination. He accepted each person as they were and not as they must become in order to be received. It is a message worthy of the whole world and not to just some of the world. It is a message of God's love testified in the communal sharing of dissimilar lives one with the other in the divine cords of fellowship measured by the winnowing threshes of peace and goodwill. And not by the chaff of callousness, bigotry, willful blindness, hardness of heart, or indifference. The church is called to be as the good Samaritan binding up the wounds of others different from ourselves that this burden may then be shared by prayers of charity and grace. Amen.

R.E. Slater
November 4, 2012

see additional related topics -
"Multi-Cultural Pluralism"

Pluralism, Tolerance and Accommodation:
In You, the Kingdom of God Has Come


Friday, November 2, 2012

Can an Open Bible compete with a Dead One?

 
 
 
What's It All About Anyway?
 
I've wanted to ask the question for some time now if whether Christians believe in an open bible, a closed bible, or simply follow a dead bible that is irrelevant and of no particular importance except as a religious institution that many people may subscribe too because of guilt, fear, and superstition. Or because of the pressure of cultural mores, personal self-doubts, and uncertainty about life hereafter. I suspect a closed or dead bible will do that. It will create less of a living faith and more of a religious faith. It will concentrate on the Church's do's and don'ts. Or on its congregational creeds and confessions that no one really has taken the time to explore or understand. Or stand in the pulpit or at the Sunday School lectern proclaiming "Thus saith the Lord" wrapped around popular Christian sentiments for faith and life before hurrying off to dinner and Sunday afternoon football.
 
Codex Vaticanus_B
2Thess 3.11-18; Hebr 1.1-2; 2
 
However, an open bible is practiced by those faithful few desiring to read and understand the bible's many mysteries. Who stand back and wonder aloud to themselves why - when reading God's Word - they find themselves so moved and affected by a living spiritual presence that burdens their hearts with honoring the commands of God to love and speak truth to those around them. By praying for personal forgiveness in the face of agonizing failure for being unloving, unkind, petty and mean, to those place around them when presented the opportunity by the Spirit to grow beyond those personal inflection points. By seeking God's daily help to be unlike their sinful selves and more like their Lord practicing deeds of charity and understanding, by patiently listening to those who sorrow, or rejoicing with those who rejoice. Who see living people in front of them unjudged by depersonalized labels of this- or that-. Who attempt to move beyond the words and proscriptions of their faith towards thoughts and attitudes welcoming benevolency, honesty and personal sacrifice. Who study the bible to discover the meaning of life; its many mysteries and majesties; and its bottomless seas of wisdom and love.
 
What Does This Mean Then?
 
In this way an open bible recreates people. It renews them. It heals and forgives. It refreshes and causes great joy within the holy magisterium of God's fellowship including that of His own people. A closed bible cannot. It's joyless, and filled with self-recriminating condemnations that washes over everyone whom God would place before us to minister to and be ministered to. It wants rules and regulations. Laws, and lots of them. It wants to seek out its own righteousness while refusing the righteousness that Jesus  provides through His atoning death on the Cross. It's austere. Formidable. Angry and vindictive. It pounds the table of good works not understanding that works follows from faith and is not a substitute for faith. How many times does the Apostle Paul say in his letters that we have inherited grace and peace? That we are adoptees into a faith that was not made by human hands. That comes by the presence of the Spirit when born again into the newness of life the Jesus has provided. Man's religious legalisms and his human spirit of pride would abjectly refuse Jesus' redeeming work of love and grace, forgiveness and mercy. All is cut off from God's providence and regarded with a niggardly hand of barrenness and shame. Closed bibles will do that to people. So will dead ones. There's no life and consequently, no spiritual life.
 
Why Is an Open Bible Important?
 
Hence, I thought to begin pursuing the history and development of the bible with an eye towards understanding God's revelation as open to all who seek His lifeforce of grace and forgiveness, but closed to those Pharisees amongst us who cannot perceive the mysteries of the Spirit sent by the Father and the Son that fills this old world with the Godhead's holy presence. And when seeking to interpret the bible we might read it as an open document written for every age of man willing to receive God's grace and mercy and thereby become vessels of use for the Master's service no matter the banged-up dings and dents found on the pot. No matter the pot's color or shape. Nor wealth of craftsmanship or poverty of material. But become holy vessels useful for the Potter's plan. Who would serve as God's incarnate hands and feet; His open heart and gracious spirit; His consuming mind and trembling voice. Speaking of a Creator-Redeemer's love birthed through the life and ministry of Jesus, the divine Son of God. And through us - that is, through the Holy Church of God, that covenanted remnant of the bible and elect of the earth - as crucified servants performing cruciform ministries to God's glory and praise. To be a living people of faith who would ask, "What would Jesus do (WWJD)?" And do it. As led by the living God despite the headaches or heartaches the church of this earth may give to those of God's servants willing to step-out and speak-out against the church's dead folklores and presumed traditions. Against its sanctimonious cultural mores and lifeless behaviors dulled by uncircumcised hearts and self-serving feet. Against its high priesthoods of darkness and misguided provincial sayings.
 
Conclusion
 
And so, in the days ahead I hope to explore what an open hermeneutic might look like when stripped away of dithering doctrines lulling followers of Jesus into a false understanding of God's Word. I intend to add to the words we think we know with newer words that would provide further help-and-assistance in examining the bible. And in the process remove some good words that originally seemed to have helped, but have now become a dark woods themselves in lending subservience to self-serving epistemologies that have unwittingly closed God's communication to man in this day and age of postmodern turmoil and turbulence.
 
In the meantime, please begin reading through the Wikipedia references I have provided below to help lend a contextual framework to this heady task of reading God's Word with an eye towards understanding it as best we can until that day when we will see clearly face-to-face and no longer through the dark mirrors of our finite humanity and bounded earthen will.
 
R.E. Slater
November 2, 2012
 
 
1 Corinthians 13
English Standard Version (ESV)
 
The Way of Love
 
13 If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal. 2 And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. 3 If I give away all I have, and if I deliver up my body to be burned,[a] but have not love, I gain nothing.
 
4 Love is patient and kind; love does not envy or boast; it is not arrogant 5 or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful;[b] 6 it does not rejoice at wrongdoing, but rejoices with the truth. 7 Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things.
 
8 Love never ends. As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues, they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away. 9 For we know in part and we prophesy in part, 10 but when the perfect comes, the partial will pass away. 11 When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I gave up childish ways. 12 For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I have been fully known.
 
13 So now faith, hope, and love abide, these three; but the greatest of these is love.
 
 
Hebrews 5
English Standard Version (ESV)
 
Warning Against Apostasy
 
11 About this we have much to say, and it is hard to explain, since you have become dull of hearing. 12 For though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone to teach you again the basic principles of the oracles of God. You need milk, not solid food, 13 for everyone who lives on milk is unskilled in the word of righteousness, since he is a child. 14 But solid food is for the mature, for those who have their powers of discernment trained by constant practice to distinguish good from evil.
 
 
 
History and Development of the Bible
 
 







 
 
 

Development of the New Testament Canon

 
Development of the New Testament canon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
For the Jewish canon, see Development of the Hebrew Bible canon.
 
For the Old Testament canon, see Development of the Old Testament canon.
 
 
The canon of the New Testament is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Bible. For most, it is an agreed-upon list of twenty-seven books that includes the Canonical Gospels, Acts, letters of the Apostles, and Revelation. The books of the canon of the New Testament were written mostly in the first century and finished by the year 150 AD. For the Orthodox, the recognition of these writings as authoritative was formalized in the Second Council of Trullan of 692, although it was nearly universally accepted in the mid 300's.[1] The Biblical canon was the result of debate and research, reaching its final term for Catholics at the dogmatic definition of the Council of Trent in the 16th Century, when the Old Testament Canon was finalized in the Catholic Church as well.[2]
 
Writings attributed to the Apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD.[3] Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles" as being read on Sunday alongside the "writings of the prophets".[4] A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, c. 180, who refers to it directly.[5][6]
 
By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same twenty-seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation,[7] known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven-book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.[8] Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century.[9]
 
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty-seven-book NT canon,[10] and he used the word "canonized" (kanonizomena) in regards to them.[11] The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (AD 393); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419.[12] These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.[13][14] Pope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above,[15] or, if not, the list is at least a 6th-century compilation.[16] Likewise, Damasus' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.[17] In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church."[18][19][20]
 
Thus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today),[21] and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon.[2][22] Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism,[2] the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox.
 
McDonald and Sanders's The Canon Debate (2002, Appendix B) lists the following most important primary sources for the "New Testament Canon".[23]
 
Early Christianity (c.30-325)
 
In the one-hundred-year period extending roughly from AD 50 to 150 a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospels, memoirs, apocalypses, homilies, and collections of teachings. While some of these documents were apostolic in origin, others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions. Still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center. Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.
 
Clement of Rome
 
By the end of the 1st century, some letters of Paul were known to Clement of Rome (fl.96), together with some form of the "words of Jesus"; but while Clement valued these highly, he did not regard them as "Scripture" ("graphe"), a term he reserved for the Septuagint. Bruce Metzger in his Canon of the New Testament (1987) draws the following conclusion about Clement:
Clement ... makes occasional reference to certain words of Jesus; though they are authoritative for him, he does not appear to enquire how their authenticity is ensured. In two of the three instances that he speaks of remembering 'the words' of Christ or of the Lord Jesus, it seems that he has a written record in mind, but he does not call it a 'gospel'. He knows several of Paul's epistles, and values them highly for their content; the same can be said of the Epistle to the Hebrews, with which he is well acquainted. Although these writings obviously possess for Clement considerable significance, he never refers to them as authoritative 'Scripture'. - page 43 
2 Peter
 
Within the New Testament itself, there is reference to at least some of the works of Paul as Scripture. 2 Peter 3:16 says:
He [Paul] writes the same way in all his letters, speaking in them of these matters. His letters contain some things that are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable people distort, as they do the other Scriptures, to their own destruction. [24]
The reference to, presumably the Septuagint, as the "other" Scripture denotes that the author of 2 Peter regarded, at least, the works of Paul that had been written by his time as Scripture. This becomes our earliest reference to the Pauline Epistles as Scripture. At latest, 2 Peter is dated to c100-150AD[25] and could be as early as sometime within the 1st Century AD[26].
 
Marcion of Sinope
Main article: Marcion of Sinope
 
Marcion of Sinope, a bishop of Asia Minor who went to Rome and was later excommunicated for his views, was the first of record to propose a definitive, exclusive, unique canon of Christian scriptures, compiled sometime between 130-140 CE.[27] (Though Ignatius did address Christian scripture,[28] before Marcion, against the perceived heresies of the Judaizers and Docetists, he did not publish a canon.) In his book Origin of the New Testament[29] Adolf von Harnack argued that Marcion viewed the church at this time as largely an Old Testament church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a firmly established New Testament canon, and that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.
 
Marcion rejected the theology of the Old Testament entirely and regarded the God depicted there as an inferior Being. He claimed that the theology of the Old Testament was incompatible with the teaching of Jesus regarding God and morality. Marcion believed that Jesus had come to liberate mankind from the authority of the God of the Old Testament and to reveal the superior God of goodness and mercy whom he called the Father. Paul and Luke were the only Christian authors to find favour with Marcion, though his versions of these differed from those later accepted by mainstream Christianity.
 
Marcion created a canon, a definite group of books which he regarded as fully authoritative, displacing all others. These comprised ten of the Pauline epistles (without the Pastorals and Hebrews) and Luke's Gospel. It is uncertain whether he edited these books, purging them of what did not accord with his views, or that his versions represented a separate textual tradition.[30]
 
Marcion's gospel, called simply the Gospel of the Lord, differed from the Gospel of Luke by lacking any passages that connected Jesus with the Old Testament. He believed that the god of Israel, who gave the Torah to the Israelites, was an entirely different god from the Supreme God who sent Jesus and inspired the New Testament.
 
Marcion termed his collection of Pauline epistles the Apostolikon. These also differed from the versions accepted by later Christian Orthodoxy.
 
In addition to his Gospel and Apostolikon, he wrote a text called the Antithesis which contrasted the New Testament view of God and morality with the Old Testament view of God and morality, see also Expounding of the Law#Antithesis of the Law.
 
Marcion's canon and theology were rejected as heretical by the early church; however, he forced other Christians to consider which texts were canonical and why. He spread his beliefs widely; they became known as Marcionism. In the introduction to his book "Early Christian Writings", Henry Wace stated:
 
A modern divine… could not refuse to discuss the question raised by Marcion, whether there is such opposition between different parts of what he regards as the word of God, that all cannot come from the same author.[31]
 
The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 characterized Marcion as "perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known."
 
Everett Ferguson in chapter 18 of The Canon Debate quotes Tertullian's De praescriptione haereticorum 30:
 
Since Marcion separated the New Testament from the Old, he is necessarily subsequent to that which he separated, inasmuch as it was only in his power to separate what was previously united. Having been united previous to its separation, the fact of its subsequent separation proves the subsequence also of the man who effected the separation.
 
Note 61 of page 308 adds:
 
[Wolfram] Kinzig suggests that it was Marcion who usually called his Bible testamentum [Latin for testament].
Other scholars propose that it was Melito of Sardis who originally coined the phrase Old Testament,[32] which is associated with Supersessionism.
 
Robert M. Price, a New Testament scholar at Drew University, considers the Pauline canon problem[33]: how, when, and who collected Paul's epistles to the various churches as a single collection of epistles. The evidence that the early church fathers, such as Clement, knew of the Pauline epistles is unclear. Price investigates several historical scenarios and comes to the conclusion and identifies Marcion as the first person known in recorded history to collect Paul's writings to various churches together as a canon, the Pauline epistles. Robert Price summarizes,
 
But the first collector of the Pauline Epistles had been Marcion. No one else we know of would be a good candidate, certainly not the essentially fictive Luke, Timothy, and Onesimus. And Marcion, as Burkitt and Bauer show, fills the bill perfectly.[34]
 
If this is correct, then Marcion's role in the formation and development of Christianity is pivotal.
 
Justin Martyr
 
In the mid-2nd century, Justin Martyr (whose writings span the period from c. 145 to 163) mentions the "memoirs of the apostles", which Christians called "gospels" and which were regarded as on par with the Old Testament.[4][35] In Justin's works, distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy.
 
In addition, he refers to an account from an unnamed source of the baptism of Jesus which differs from that provided by the synoptic gospels:
 
When Jesus went down in the water, fire was kindled in the Jordan; and when he came up from the water, the Holy Spirit came upon him. The apostles of our Christ wrote this.[36]
 
Irenaeus
Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Rev, 1 John, 1 Peter, Hermas, Wisdom, Paul (mentioned but epistles not listed)
Irenaeus apparently quotes from 21 of the New Testament books and names the author he thought wrote the text.[citation needed] He is known to have been connected to Polycarp and since Polycarp may have been connected to John the Apostle of Jesus, there is potentially great authority to his tradition.
 
He mentions the four gospels, Acts, the Pauline epistles with the exception of Hebrews and Philemon, as well as the first epistle of Peter, and the first and second epistles of John, and the book of Revelation.[41] He may refer to Hebrews (Book 2, Chapter 30) and James (Book 4, Chapter 16) and maybe even 2 Peter (Book 5, Chapter 28) but does not cite Philemon, 3 John or Jude.[citation needed]
 
He does think that the letter to the Corinthians, known now as 1 Clement, was of great worth but does not seem to believe that Clement of Rome was the one author (Book 3, Chapter 3, Verse 3) and seems to have the same lower status as Polycarp's Epistle (Book 3, Chapter 3, Verse 3). He does refer to a passage in the Shepherd of Hermas as scripture (Mandate 1 or First Commandment), but this has some consistency problems on his part. Hermas believed that Jesus became the Son of God at the Baptism[citation needed] (Parable 5 of Shepherd; Chapter 59, verses 4-6[clarification needed]), a concept called adoptionism, but all of Irenaeus's work including his citing of the Gospel of John (Jn. 1:1) proves that he believed that Jesus was always God.
 
Tatian
The third book of the Gospel is that according to Luke… The fourth… is that of John… the acts of all the apostles… As for the Epistles of Paul… To the Corinthians first, to the Ephesians second, to the Philippians third, to the Colossians fourth, to the Galatians fifth, to the Thessalonians sixth, to the Romans seventh… once more to the Corinthians and to the Thessalonians… one to Philemon, one to Titus, and two to Timothy… to the Laodiceans, [and] another to the Alexandrians, [both] forged in Paul's name to [further] the heresy of Marcion… the epistle of Jude and two of the above-mentioned (or, bearing the name of) John… and [the book of] Wisdom… We receive only the apocalypses of John and Peter, though some of us are not willing that the latter be read in church. But Hermas wrote the Shepherd very recently… And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church.
—pages 305-307
 
This is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book NT, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.[48] Also in the early 200's it is claimed Origen (c. 185-c. 254) was using the same 27 books as in the Catholic NT canon, though there were still lingering disputes over Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation.[49] A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 160, who refers to it directly.[50] He argued that it was illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author.[51] Marcion's canon did not include Acts, so perhaps he rejected it. It is unknown when Luke-Acts was separated. In Against Heresies 3.12.12[52] Irenaeus ridiculed those who think they are wiser than the Apostles because the Apostles were still under Jewish influence. This was crucial to refuting Marcion's anti-Judaism, as Acts gives honor to James, Peter, John and Paul alike. At the time, Jewish Christians tended to honor James (a prominent Christian in Jerusalem described in the New Testament as an "apostle" and "pillar",[53] and by Eusebius and other church historians as the first Bishop of Jerusalem) but not Paul, while Pauline Christianity tended to honor Paul more than James.[54]
 
Clement of Alexandria
 
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-c. 215) made use of an open canon. He seemed "practically unconcerned about canonicity. To him, inspiration is what mattered." (Daniel F. Lieuwen) In addition to books that did not make it into the final 27-book NT but which had local canonicity (Barnabas, Didache, I Clement, Revelation of Peter, the Shepherd, the Gospel according to the Hebrews), he also used the Gospel of the Egyptians, Preaching of Peter, Traditions of Matthias, Sibylline Oracles, and the Oral Gospel. He did, however, prefer the four church gospels to all others, although he supplemented them freely with apocryphal gospels. He was the first[citation needed] to treat non-Pauline letters of the apostles (other than II Peter) as scripture-he accepted I Peter, I and II John, and Jude as scripture.
 
The Alogi
1. Since we are dealing with this subject it is proper to sum up the writings of the New Testament which have been already mentioned. First then must be put the holy quaternion of the Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles… the epistles of Paul… the epistle of John… the epistle of Peter… After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings [Homologoumena].
3. Among the disputed writings [Antilegomena], which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. 4. Among the rejected [Kirsopp. Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. 5. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews… And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books.
6. … such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles … 7. … they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious.
 
The Apocalypse of John, also called Revelation, is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity, see also EH 6.25.3=14 attributed to Origen[59] and EH 3.24.17-18[60] EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the Church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."
 
Claromontanus Canon
Gospels (4), Acts, James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude?, Paul's epistles (14), and Gospel of Thomas listed as pseudepigrapha.
Athanasius

In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books as what would become the 27-book NT canon,[65] and he used the word "canonized" (kanonizomena) in regards to them.[66] He also listed a 22-book OT and 7 books not in the canon but to be read: Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Didache, and the Shepherd. This list is very similar to the modern Protestant canon (WCF); the only differences are his exclusion of Esther and his inclusion of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah as part of Jeremiah.

Cheltenham/Mommsen Canon

The Cheltenham Canon,[67][68] c. 365-390, is a Latin list that was discovered by the German classical scholar Theodor Mommsen (published 1886) in a 10th century manuscript (chiefly patristic) belonging to the library of Thomas Phillips at Cheltenham, England. The list probably originated in North Africa soon after the middle of the 4th century.

It has a 24-book Old Testament[69] and 24-book New Testament which provides syllable and line counts but omits Hebrews, Jude and James, and seems to question the epistles of John and Peter beyond the first.

Synod of Laodicea
Gospels (4), Paul's epistles (13), Acts, James, Peter, 1-3 John, Jude, Rev, Wisdom, Sirach
Apostolic Canon #85

In c. 380, the redactor of the Apostolic Constitutions attributed a canon to the Twelve Apostles themselves[71] as the 85th of his list of such apostolic decrees:
Canon 85. Let the following books be esteemed venerable and holy by all of you, both clergy and laity. [A list of books of the Old Testament …] And our sacred books, that is, of the New Testament, are the four Gospels, of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; the fourteen Epistles of Paul; two Epistles of Peter; three of John; one of James; one of Jude; two Epistles of Clement; and the Constitutions dedicated to you, the bishops, by me, Clement, in eight books, which is not appropriate to make public before all, because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts of us, the Apostles.—(From the Latin version.)
Some later Coptic and Arabic translations add Revelation.[citation needed]
 
Gregory of Nazianzus
 
In the late 380s, Gregory of Nazianzus produced a canon[72] in verse which agreed with that of his contemporary Athanasius, other than placing the "Catholic Epistles" after the Pauline Epistles and omitting Revelation. This list was ratified by the Synod of Trullo of 692.
 
Amphilochius of Iconium
 
Bishop Amphilochius of Iconium, in his poem Iambics for Seleucus[73] written some time after 394, discusses debate over the canonical inclusion of a number of books, and almost certainly rejects the later Epistles of Peter and John, Jude, and Revelation.[74]
 
Jerome
 
McDonald & Sanders, Appendix D-2, lists the following New Testament canon for Jerome, (c.394), from his Epistle 53:
 
"Lord's Four": Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Paul's Epistles (14), 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude, James, Acts, Rev.
Augustine and the North African canons

Augustine of Hippo declared that one is to "prefer those that are received by all Catholic Churches to those which some of them do not receive" (On Christian Doctrines 2.12). In the same passage, Agustine asserted that these dissenting churches should be outweighed by the opinions of "the more numerous and weightier churches."
 
Augustine effectively forced his opinion on the Church by commanding three synods on canonicity: the Synod of Hippo in 393, the Synod of Carthage in 397, and another in Carthage in 419 AD (M 237-8). Each of these reiterated the same Church law: "nothing shall be read in church under the name of the divine scriptures" except the Old Testament (including the Deuterocanonicals) and the 27 canonical books of the New Testament. Incidentally, these decrees also declared by fiat that Epistle to the Hebrews was written by Paul, for a time ending all debate on the subject.
 
The first council that accepted the present canon of the books of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (AD 393); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419. Revelation was added to the list in 419.[75] These councils were convened under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.[76][77][78]
 
Pope Damasus I
 
Pope Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.[17] Pope Damasus I is often considered to be the father of the modern Catholic canon. Purporting to date from a "Council of Rome" under Pope Damasus I in 382, the so-called "Damasian list" appended to the pseudepigraphical Decretum Gelasianum[79] gives a list identical to what would be the Canon of Trent,[80] and, though the text may in fact not be Damasian, it is at least a valuable 6th century compilation.[16][81]
 
This list, given below, was purportedly endorsed by Pope Damasus I:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Jesus Nave, Judges, Ruth, 4 books of Kings, 2 books of Chronicles, Job, Psalter of David, 5 books of Solomon, 12 books of Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, 2 books of Esdras, 2 books of Maccabees, and in the New Testament: 4 books of Gospels, 1 book of Acts of the Apostles, 13 letters of the Apostle Paul, 1 of him to the Hebrews, 2 of Peter, 3 of John, 1 of James, 1 of Jude, and the Apocalypse of John.
The so-called Decretum Gelasianum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis, is traditionally attributed to Gelasius, bishop of Rome 492-496 CE. However, upon the whole it is probably of South Gallic origin (6th century), but several parts can be traced back to Pope Damasus and reflect Roman tradition. The 2nd part is a canon catalogue, and the 5th part is a catalogue of the 'apocrypha' and other writings which are to be rejected. The canon catalogue gives all 27 books of the Catholic New Testament.
 
Pope Innocent I
 
In c.405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop Exsuperius of Toulouse, which is most likely identical to Trent[82] (without the distinction between protocanonicals and deuterocanonicals).
 
A consensus emerges
 
Thus, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today),[83] and by the 5th century the East, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon, at least for the New Testament.[22]
 
This period marks the beginning of a more widely recognized canon, although the inclusion of some books was still debated: Epistle to Hebrews, James, 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation. Grounds for debate included the question of authorship of these books (note that the so-called Damasian "Council at Rome" had already rejected John the Apostle's authorship of 2 and 3 John, while retaining the books), their suitability for use (Revelation at that time was already being interpreted in a wide variety of heretical ways), and how widely they were actually being used (2 Peter being amongst the most weakly attested of all the books in the Christian canon).
 
Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church".[19][76][84]
 
By the turn of the 5th century, the Catholic Church in the west, under Pope Innocent I, recognized a biblical canon including the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which was previously established at a number of regional Synods, namely the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), and two Synods of Carthage (397 and 419).[85] This canon, which corresponds to the modern Catholic canon, was used in the Vulgate, an early 5th century translation of the Bible made by Jerome[2] under the commission of Pope Damasus I in 382.
 
Cassiodorus
 
McDonald & Sanders, Appendix D-3, lists a canon for Cassiodorus of Rome, from his Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum, c.551-562, which is notable for its omission of 2 Peter, 2-3 John, Jude and Hebrews.
 
Eastern canons
Gospels (4): Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Gal, Rom, Heb, Col, Eph, Phil, 1-2 Thess, 1-2 Tim, Titus, Phlm.
The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syrian Churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation (and this canon of 22-books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347–407) and Theodoret (393–466) from the School of Antioch). It also includes Psalm 151 and Psalm 152–155 and 2 Baruch. Western Syrians have added the remaining 5 books to their NT canons in modern times (such as the Lee Peshitta of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church, with headquarters at Kottayam (India), and the Chaldean Syrian Church, also known as the Church of the East (Nestorian), with headquarters at Trichur (India), still present lessons from only the 22-books of the original Peshitta.[89]
 
Armenian canon
 
The Armenian Bible introduces one addition: a third letter to the Corinthians, also found in the Acts of Paul, which became canonized in the Armenian Church, but is not part of the Armenian Bible today. Revelation, however, was not accepted into the Armenian Bible until c. 1200 AD. when Archbishop Nerses arranged an Armenian Synod at Constantinople to introduce the text.[90] Still, there were unsuccessful attempts even as late as 1290 AD. to include in the Armenian canon several apocryphal books: Advice of the Mother of God to the Apostles, the Books of Criapos, and the ever-popular Epistle of Barnabas.
 
The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in its Old Testament and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books.
 
East African canons
 
The Coptic Bible (adopted by the Egyptian Church) includes the two Epistles of Clement, and the Ethiopic Bible includes books nowhere else found: the Sinodos (a collection of prayers and instructions supposedly written by Clement of Rome), the Octateuch (a book supposedly written by Peter to Clement of Rome), the Book of the Covenant (in two parts, the first details rules of church order, the second relates instructions from Jesus to the disciples given between the resurrection and the ascension), and the Didascalia (with more rules of church order, similar to the Apostolic Constitutions).
 
The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement.[90] The canon of the Tewahedo Churches is somewhat looser than for other traditional Christian groups, and the order, naming, and chapter/verse division of some of the books is also slightly different.
 
The "broader" Ethiopian New Testament canon includes four books of "Sinodos" (church practices), two "Books of Covenant", "Ethiopic Clement", and "Ethiopic Didascalia" (Apostolic Church-Ordinances). However, these books have never been printed or widely studied. This "broader" canon is also sometimes said to include, with the Old Testament, an eight part history of the Jews based on the writings of Flavius Josephus, and known as "Pseudo-Josephus" or "Joseph ben Gurion" (Yosēf walda Koryon).[91][92]
 
Protestant Developments (from c. 1517)
Accordingly when I went East and came to the place where these things were preached and done, I learned accurately the books of the Old Testament, and send them to thee as written below. Their names are as follows: Of Moses, five books: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, Deuteronomy; Jesus Nave, Judges, Ruth; of Kings, four books; of Chronicles, two; the Psalms of David, the Proverbs of Solomon, Wisdom also, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job; of Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah; of the twelve prophets, one book; Daniel, Ezekiel, Esdras. From which also I have made the extracts, dividing them into six books.
 
However, Melito's account still does not determine that the specific documentary tradition used by the Jews necessarily was that which was eventually assembled into the Masoretic Text, several centuries later.
 
Many modern Protestants point to four "Criteria for Canonicity" to justify the books that have been included in the Old and New Testament, which are judged to have satisfied the following:
  1. Apostolic Origin — attributed to and based on the preaching/teaching of the first-generation apostles (or their close companions).
  2. Universal Acceptance — acknowledged by all major Christian communities in the ancient world (by the end of the 4th century).
  3. Liturgical Use — read publicly when early Christian communities gathered for the Lord's Supper (their weekly worship services).
  4. Consistent Message — containing a theological outlook similar or complementary to other accepted Christian writings.

The basic factor for recognizing a book's canonicity for the New Testament was divine inspiration, and the chief test for this was apostolicity. The term apostolic as used for the test of canonicity does not necessarily mean apostolic authorship or derivation, but rather apostolic authority. Apostolic authority is never detached from the authority of the Lord. See Apostolic succession.

It is sometimes difficult to apply these criteria to all books in the accepted canon, however, and some point to books that Protestants hold as apocryphal which would fulfill these requirements. In practice, Protestants hold to the Jewish canon for the Old Testament and the Catholic canon for the New Testament.

Catholic Developments (from c. 1546)

Council of Trent

The Council of Trent on April 8, 1546, by vote (24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain)[100] approved the present Roman Catholic Bible Canon including the Deuterocanonical Books. This is said to be the same list as produced at the Council of Florence in 1451, this list was defined as canonical in the profession of faith proposed for the Jacobite Orthodox Church. Because of its placement, the list was not considered binding for the Catholic Church, and in light of Martin Luther's demands, the Catholic Church examined the question of the Canon again at the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed deuterocanonical, not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval. Beyond these books, some editions of the Latin Vulgate include Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Esdras (called 3 Esdras), 2 Esdras (called 4 Esdras), and the Epistle to the Laodiceans in an appendix, styled "Apogryphi", (see also Biblical Apocrypha#Clementine Vulgate).
 
In support of the inclusion of the 12 Deuterocanonical books in the canon, the Council of Trent pointed to the two regional councils which met under Augustine's leadership in Hippo (393 AD) and Carthage (397 and 419 AD). The bishops of Trent claimed these councils formally defined the canon as including these books.
 
Later Developments

Vatican I on April 24, 1870 approved the additions to Mark (v. 16:9–20), Luke (22:19b–20, 43–44), and John (7:53–8:11), which are not present in early manuscripts but are contained in the Vulgate edition.[101]

Pope Pius XI on June 2, 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.

Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 decreed the Divino Afflante Spiritu which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.

Orthodox Developments (from c. 1672)

 Synod of Jerusalem

The Synod of Jerusalem in 1672 decreed the Greek Orthodox Canon which is the same as the one decided by the Council of Trent for the New Testament but different for the Old Testament.[102]

References

  1. ^ Pelikan, Jaroslav (2005). Whose Bible Is It?. New York, New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-670-03385-5.
  2. ^ a b c d "Canon of the New Testament". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
  3. ^ Three forms are postulated, from The Canon Debate, chapter 18, page 300, note 21, attributed to Harry Y. Gamble: "(1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last."
  4. ^ a b cf. Justin Martyr, First Apology 67.3.
  5. ^ Ferguson, Everett. "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon," in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 301.
  6. ^ cf. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.11.8.
  7. ^ Both points taken from Mark A. Noll's Turning Points, (Baker Academic, 1997) pp 36–37
  8. ^ H. J. De Jonge, "The New Testament Canon," in The Biblical Canons. eds. de Jonge & J. M. Auwers (Leuven University Press, 2003) p. 315
  9. ^ P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans, eds. (1970). The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1). Cambridge University Press. pp. 308.
  10. ^ Lindberg, Carter (2006). A Brief History of Christianity. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 15. ISBN 1-4051-1078-3.
  11. ^ Brakke, David. "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter," in Harvard Theological Review 87 (1994) pp. 395–419
  12. ^ McDonald & Sanders' The Canon Debate, Appendix D-2, note 19: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."
  13. ^ Ferguson, Everett. "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon," in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230
  14. ^ cf. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 22.8
  15. ^ Lindberg, Carter (2006). A Brief History of Christianity. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 15. ISBN 1-4051-1078-3.
  16. ^ a b Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. pp. 234.
  17. ^ a b Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. pp. 225.
  18. ^ Ferguson, Everett. "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon," in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320
  19. ^ a b Metzger, Bruce (1987). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 237–238.
  20. ^ Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. pp. 97.
  21. ^ Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. pp. 215.
  22. ^ a b P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans, eds. (1970). The Cambridge History of the Bible (volume 1). Cambridge University Press. pp. 305.
  23. ^ Eusebius' Church History 3.25.1-7 (c.303-325), Codex Claramontanus (c.303-367), Cyril of Jerusalem Catechetical Lectures 4.33 (c.350), Muratorian Canon (c.350-375), Athanasius' Ep.fest.39 (367), Mommsen [Cheltenham] (365-390), Epiphanius' Pan.76.5 (374-377), Apostolic Canons (c.380), Gregory of Nazianius Carmen de veris scripturae libris 12.31 (383-390), African Canons (c.393-419), Jerome Epist.53 (c.394), Augustine's Doct.chr.2.18.12 (c.396-397), Amphilochius Iambi ad Seleucum 289-319 (c.396), Rufinus Commentary on the Apostle's Creed 36 (c.400), Pope Innocent Letter to Exsuperius (c.405), Syrian catalogue of St. Catherine's (c.400).
  24. ^ http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20peter%203:16&version=NIV
  25. ^ Chester, A & Martin, RP, (1994), The Theology of the letters of James, Peter & Jude, CUP, p.144
  26. ^ Kruger, MJ, (1999) “The Authenticity of 2 Peter,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 42.4, p.645-671
  27. ^ http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/marcion.html
  28. ^ Ignatius, NT Canon.
  29. ^ von Harnack, Adolf (1914). Origin of the New Testament. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html.
  30. ^ From the perspectives of Tertullian and Epiphanius (when the four gospels had largely canonical status, perhaps in reaction to the challenge created by Marcion), it appeared that Marcion rejected the non-Lukan gospels, however, in Marcion's time, it may be that the only gospel he was familiar with from Pontus was the gospel that would later be called Luke. It is also possible that Marcion's gospel was actually modified by his critics to became the gospel we know today as Luke, rather than the story from his critics that he changed a canonical gospel to get his version. For example, compare Luke 5:39 to Luke 5:36-38, did Marcion delete 5:39 from his Gospel or was it added later to counteract a Marcionist interpretation of 5:36-38? One must keep in mind that we only know of Marcion through his critics and they considered him a major threat to the form of Christianity that they knew. John Knox (the modern writer, not to be confused with John Knox the Protestant Reformer) in Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon (ISBN 0-404-16183-9) was the first to propose that Marcion's Gospel may have preceded Luke's Gospel and Acts,[1] although still maintaining that Marcion edited the sources available to him.[2]
  31. ^ Wace, Henry (1911). "Early Christian Writings.". http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html.
  32. ^ A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations page 316
  33. ^ The Evolution of the Pauline Canon by Robert Price
  34. ^ Price
  35. ^ Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon," in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 302–303; cf. Justin Martyr, First Apology 67.3.
  36. ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue 88:3
  37. ^ Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon," in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 301; cf. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.11.8.
  38. ^ McDonald & Sanders, page 277
  39. ^ McDonald & Sanders, page 280. Also page 310, summarizing 3.11.7: the Ebionites use Matthew's Gospel, Marcion mutilates Luke's, the Docetists use Mark's, the Valentinians use John's
  40. ^ ibid
  41. ^ Matthew (Book 3, Chapter 16)
    Mark (Book 3, Chapter 10)
    Luke (Book 3, Chapter 14)
    John (Book 3, Chapter 11)
    Acts of the Apostles (Book 3, Chapter 14)
    Romans (Book 3, Chapter 16)
    1 Corinthians (Book 1, Chapter 3)
    2 Corinthians (Book 3, Chapter 7)
    Galatians (Book 3, Chapter 22)
    Ephesians (Book 5, Chapter 2)
    Philippians (Book 4, Chapter 18)
    Colossians (Book 1, Chapter 3)
    1 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 6)
    2 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 25)
    1 Timothy (Book 1, Preface)
    2 Timothy (Book 3, Chapter 14)
    Titus (Book 3, Chapter 3)
    1 Peter (Book 4, Chapter 9)
    1 John(Book 3, Chapter 16)
    2 John (Book 1, Chapter 16)
    Revelation to John (Book 4, Chapter 20)
  42. ^ a b Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Gal 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
  43. ^ Bruce Metzger's The canon of the New Testament, 1997, Oxford University Press, page 98: "The question whether the Church's canon preceded or followed Marcion's canon continues to be debated. ...Harnack...John Knox..."
  44. ^ The Muratorian Canon earlychristianwritings.com Accessed April 10, 2007
  45. ^ Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2006), 425–426.
  46. ^ E. Ferguson, ‘Canon Muratori: Date and Provenance’, Studia Patristica 17 (1982), 677–683; E. Ferguson, ‘The Muragorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon”, Journal of Theological Studues 44 (1993), 696; F. F. Bruce, "Some Thoughts on the Beginning of the New Testament Canon," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 65 (1983), 56–57; B. M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987), 193–194; P. Henne, La dation du Canon de Muratori”, Revenue Biblique 100 (1993), 54–75; W. Horbury, “The Wisdom of Solomon in the Muratorian Fragment”, Journal of Theological Studies 45 (1994), 146–159; C. E. Hill, “The Debate over the Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon”, Westminster Theological Journal 57 (1995), Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2006), 426.
  47. ^ G. M. Hahneman, The Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), see also the article in the Anchor Bible Dictionary. McDonald and Sanders's The Canon Debate, 2002, page 595, note 17: "The Muratorian Fragment. While many scholars contend that this was a late second-century C.E. fragment originating in or around Rome, a growing number hold that it was produced around the middle of the fourth century (ca. 350-375) and that it originated somewhere in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, possibly in Syria."
  48. ^ H. J. De Jonge, "The New Testament Canon", in The Biblical Canons. eds. de Jonge & J. M. Auwers (Leuven University Press, 2003), p. 315.
  49. ^ Both points taken from Mark A. Noll's Turning Points, pp. 36–37. See References on this page.
  50. ^ Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) pp. 301; cf. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.11.8.
  51. ^ The Canon Debate, page 288, claims Acts was first "clearly and extensively" used by Irenaeus, though it seems to have been known by Justin (1 Apol. 50.12, cf. 2 Apol. 10.6)
  52. ^ Irinæus, Adversus Hæreses.
  53. ^ "St. James the Less". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. : "Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul, three years after his conversion (A.D. 37), went up to Jerusalem. ... On the same occasion, the "pillars" of the Church, James, Peter, and John "gave to me (Paul) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the circumcision" (Galatians 2:9)."
  54. ^ The Tübingen school of historians founded by F. C. Baur holds that in Early Christianity, there was conflict between Pauline Christianity and the Jerusalem Church led by James the Just, Simon Peter, and John the Apostle, the so-called "Jewish Christians" or "Pillars of the Church" although in many places Paul writes that he was an observant Jew, and that Christians should "uphold the Law" (Romans 3:31). The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man (pontifex maximus!) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]
  55. ^ Metzger, Bruce. Canon of the New Testament. pp. 150.
  56. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. pp. 45.
  57. ^ "Montanists". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. : MONTANISM IN THE WEST: "The old notion that the Alogi were an Asiatic sect (see ALOGI) is no longer tenable; they were the Roman Gaius and his followers, if he had any."
  58. ^ Primary reference: Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History Book 3. pp. Chapter XXV: The Divine Scriptures that are accepted and those that are not.. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.xxv.html. Secondary reference: The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 23 The New Testament Canon of Eusebius by Everett R. Kalin, pages 403-404: "Eusebius divides the writings he has been discussing into three categories, the homologoumena (the universally acknowledged writings), the antilegomena (the writings that have been spoken against and are thus disputed—or, in a certain sense, rejected, even though in wide use) and the heretical writings. Only the twenty-one or twenty-two books in the first category are in the church's New Testament (are canonical). It is the ancient church's tradition of what the apostles wrote and handed down that is the criterion for evaluating these writings from the apostolic era, and only these twenty-one or twenty-two pass the test. In important recent contributions on this passage both Robbins and Baum agree that for Eusebius the church's canon consists of these twenty-one or twenty-two books. ... Given what we see in Eusebius in the early fourth century it is virtually impossible to imagine that the church had settled upon a twenty-seven book collection, or even one that approximated that, in the late second century. Moreover, whatever the merits of David Trobisch's intriguing and important proposal that a twenty-seven book edition of the New Testament was produced in the second century, that notion seems hard to reconcile with what we have found in Eusebius regarding the church's acceptance of apostolic writings in earlier centuries."
  59. ^ E. R. Kalin, "Re-examining New Testament Canon History: 1. The Canon of Origen," Currents in Theology and Mission 17 (1990): 274-82
  60. ^ The Canon Debate, page 395
  61. ^ Codex Claromontanus, Bible Researcher.
  62. ^ McDonald and Sanders
  63. ^ The Canon Debate, pages 414-415, for the entire paragraph
  64. ^ "Book of Judith". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. : Canonicity: "..."the Synod of Nicaea is said to have accounted it as Sacred Scripture" (Praef. in Lib.). It is true that no such declaration is to be found in the Canons of Nicaea, and it is uncertain whether St. Jerome is referring to the use made of the book in the discussions of the council, or whether he was misled by some spurious canons attributed to that council"
  65. ^ Carter Lindberg, A Brief History of Christianity (Blackwell Publishing, 2006) p. 15.
  66. ^ David Brakke, "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter", in Harvard Theological Review 87 (1994) pp. 395–419.
  67. ^ "The Cheltenham List". Bible Research. http://www.bible-researcher.com/cheltenham.html. Retrieved 2007-07-08.
  68. ^ "The Cheltenham Canon". ntcanon.org. http://www.ntcanon.org/Cheltenham_Canon.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-08. ; (also known as Mommsen's)
  69. ^ From [3] which references Metzger: 1. Genesis, 2. Exodus, 3. Numbers, 4. Leviticus, 5. Deuteronomy, 6. Joshua, 7. Judges, 8. Ruth, 9. I Kingdoms, 10. II Kingdoms, 11. III Kingdoms, 12. IV Kingdoms, 13. Chronicles I, 14. Chronicles II, 15. Maccabees I, 16. Maccabees II, 17. Job, 18. Tobit, 19. Esther, 20. Judith, 21. Psalms, 22. Solomon (probably to include the Wisdom of Solomon), 23. Major prophets, 24. Twelve Prophets
  70. ^ Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, volume XIV
  71. ^ Apostolic Canons
  72. ^ "The Canon of Gregory of Nazianus (329-389 CE)". http://www.ntcanon.org/Gregory.canon.shtml.
  73. ^ "The Canon of Amphilochius of Iconium (after 394 CE)". http://www.ntcanon.org/Amphilochius.canon.shtml.
  74. ^ The Canon Debate, page 400, note 78, translation attributed to Metzger's Canon of the NT page 314 ["/" indicates newline]: "And again the Revelation of John,/ Some approve, but the most/ Say it is spurious." and "Paul ... [wrote]/ Twice seven epistles:... But some say the one to the Hebrews is spurious, not saying well, for the grace is genuine." and on the Catholic Epistles: "Some say we must receive seven, but others say/ Only three [James, 1 Peter, 1 John] should be received..."
  75. ^ McDonald & Sanders' The Canon Debate, Appendix D-2, note 19: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."
  76. ^ a b Ferguson, Everett. "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in The Canon Debate. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320
  77. ^ F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230
  78. ^ cf. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 22.8.
  79. ^ Decretum Gelasianum
  80. ^ Lindberg (2006). A Brief History of Christianity. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 15.
  81. ^ The "Damasian Canon" was published by C. H. Turner in JTS, vol. 1, 1900, pp. 554–560.
  82. ^ Henry Barclay Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, page 211 shows Innocent's OT list; McDonald and Sander's The Canon Debate, Appendix D-2, page 594, lists this NT canon: "Gospels (4), Paul's epistles (13) [Some add Hebrews to this and make it 14. It is uncertain.], 1-3 John, 1-2 Peter, Jude, Jas, Acts, Rev; Repudiated: Matthias/, James the Less, Peter + John = Leucian (Andrew = Xenocharides & Leonidas), Gospel of Thomas.
  83. ^ F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 215
  84. ^ Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. pp. 97.
  85. ^ Pogorzelski, Frederick (2006). "Protestantism: A Historical and Spiritual Wrong Way Turn". Bible Dates. CatholicEvangelism.com. pp. 1. http://www.catholicevangelism.org/bible-dates1.shtml. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
  86. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (1987.). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  87. ^ Diatessaron – Early Christian Writings
  88. ^ "The Development of the Canon of the New Testament". http://www.ntcanon.org/Peshitta.shtml.
  89. ^ "Peshitta". NT Canon. http://www.ntcanon.org/Peshitta.shtml.
  90. ^ a b "Reliability". Theological Perspectives. http://www.theologicalperspectives.com/RELIABILITY4.html.
  91. ^ Ethiopian Canon, Islamic Awareness.
  92. ^ "Fathers". Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL). http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/harden_ethiopic_literature.htm#CHAPTER%20IV.
  93. ^ "Martin Luther". http://www.wels.net/sab/qa/luther-03.html.
  94. ^ "Luther's Treatment of the 'Disputed Books' of the New Testament". http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html.
  95. ^ "Gedruckte Ausgaben der Lutherbibel von 1545". http://www.bibelcenter.de/bibel/lu1545/. note order: …Hebräer, Jakobus, Judas, Offenbarung
  96. ^ "German Bible Versions". http://www.bible-researcher.com/links10.html.
  97. ^ Samuel Fallows et al., eds. (1901,1910). The Popular and Critical Bible Encyclopædia and Scriptural Dictionary, Fully Defining and Explaining All Religious Terms, Including Biographical, Geographical, Historical, Archæological and Doctrinal Themes. The Howard-Severance company. pp. 521. http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC05742122&id=rl3lcbLkHV0C&pg=PA521&lpg=PA521&dq=luther+%22are+useful+and+good+to+read%22.
  98. ^ WELS Topical Q&A: Martin Luther
  99. ^ "Fathers". New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm.
  100. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (March 13, 1997). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford University Press. pp. 246. ISBN 0-19-826954-4. ""Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema.""
  101. ^ Session 3, Chapter 2, Item 6: "The complete books of the old and the new Testament with all their parts, as they are listed in the decree of the said council and as they are found in the old Latin Vulgate edition, are to be received as sacred and canonical." In the context, the "decree of the said Council" is the decree of the Council of Trent defining the canon of the Scriptures.
  102. ^ Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical notes. Volume I. The History of Creeds.