I hope to keep adding to this subject in the months and years ahead but as a recap there are several recent articles I wrote as introductions to the physics areas of EM/QED. In those intros I speak to why process theology goes so well with today's scientific outlooks and how process philosophy is becoming a foundation for the new cosmologies, metaphysics, and even ethics of the world. I will leave these links here immediately below. In the remainder of this post will be found a link to the Center of Process Studies (above at the emblem), several books on the subject, and brief historical reviews of the church's several positions it has taken over the past centuries in the area of natural theology. Enjoy.R.E. SlaterJuly 9, 2021
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John B. Cobb, Jr., Ph.D. is Professor of Theology Emeritus at the Claremont School of Theology, Claremont, California, and Co-Director of the Center for Process Studies there. His many books currently in print include: Reclaiming the Church (1997); with Herman Daly, For the Common Good; Becoming a Thinking Christian (1993); Sustainability (1992); Can Christ Become Good News Again? (1991); ed. with Christopher Ives, The Emptying God: a Buddhist-Jewish-Christian Conversation (1990); with Charles Birch, The Liberation of Life; and with David Griffin, Process Theology: An Introductory Exposition (1977). He is a retired minister in the United Methodist Church. His email address is cobbj@cgu.edu..Published by Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1965. Used by permission. This book was prepared for Religion Online by Ted & Winnie Brock.
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- The Classical Origins of Natural TheologyStephen Clark
- Natural Theology and the Christian BibleChristopher Rowland
- Natural Theology in the Patristic PeriodWayne Hankey
- Natural Theology in the Middle AgesAlexander W. Hall
- Early Modern Natural TheologiesScott Mandelbrote
- Nineteenth-Century Natural TheologyMatthew D. Eddy
- Natural Theology in the Twentieth CenturyRodney D. Holder
- Jewish Perspectives on Natural TheologyDaniel H. Frank
- Islamic Perspectives on Natural TheologyRobert G. Morrison
- Natural Theology in Eastern ReligionsJessica Frazier
- Catholic Perspectives on Natural TheologyDenis Edwards
- Protestant Perspectives on Natural TheologyRussell Re Manning
- Natural Theology and the Eastern Orthodox TraditionChristopher C. Knight
- Theological Critiques of Natural TheologyAndrew Moore
- Perspectives on Natural Theology From Analytic PhilosophyKeith M. Parsons
- A Perspective on Natural Theology From Continental PhilosophyRussell Re Manning
- Process Thought and Natural TheologyDavid Ray Griffin
Process thought refers to the mode of thinking rooted in the philosophies of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000). Drawing heavily on Whitehead and Hartshorne, this chapter presents an account of process natural theology. The discussions cover the decline of natural theology's reputation in modern times; process theology in the broad sense; panexperientialism's avoidance of materialism's mind–body problems; sensationism's knowledge problems; how prehensive perception solves sensationism's knowledge problems; and process theology in the narrow sense.
David Ray Griffin is professor of philosophy of religion and theology, emeritus, at Claremont School of Theology and Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, California, where he remains one of the co-directors of the Center for Process Studies. His thirty-two books include Religion and Scientific Naturalism: Overcoming the Conflicts (2000), Reenchantment without Supernaturalism: A Process Philosophy of Religion (2001), Two Great Truths: A New Synthesis of Scientific Naturalism and Christian Faith (2004), Deep Religious Pluralism (ed., 2005), and Whitehead's Radically Different Postmodern Philosophy (2007).
- The Design Argument and Natural TheologyNeil A. Manson
- Morality and Natural TheologyWilliam Schweiker
- Religious Experience and Natural TheologyMark Wynn
- Postmodernism and Natural TheologyClayton Crockett
- Feminist Perspectives on Natural TheologyPamela Sue Anderson
- Comparative Natural TheologyWesley J. Wildman
- Philosophical Critique of Natural TheologyCharles Taliaferro
- Natural Theology: The Biological SciencesMichael Ruse
- The Physical Sciences and Natural TheologyPaul Ewart
- Chemical Sciences and Natural TheologyDavid Knight
- Mathematics and Natural TheologyJohn Polkinghorne
- Natural Theology and EcologyChristopher Southgate
- Natural Theology and the Mind SciencesFraser Watts
- A Sociological Perspective on Natural TheologyRichard K. Fenn
- Scientific Critiques of Natural TheologyPhilip Clayton
- Aesthetics and the Arts in Relation to Natural TheologyFrank Burch Brown
- Imagination and Natural TheologyDouglas Hedley
- Natural Theology and LiteratureGuy Bennett-Hunter
- Natural Theology and MusicJeremy S. Begbie
- Images in Natural TheologyKristóf Nyíri
- The Film Viewer and Natural Theology: God's ‘Presence’ at the MoviesRobert K. Johnston
Transcripts of four Morse lectures given at Union Theological seminary in 1964. |
Charles Hartshorne was educated at Harvard University, where he coedited with Paul Weiss the first six volumes of The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (1931--36) and became associated with Alfred North Whitehead. He has taught at Harvard, the University of Chicago, Emory University, and the University of Texas-Austin. Hartshorne is the undisputed leader in the development of process philosophy and theology since the death of Whitehead. A consummate metaphysician, Hartshorne has resurrected the ontological argument for the existence of God, reframing it in terms of contemporary modal logic. He has espoused a doctrine of panpsychism, according to which mind (with feeling) permeates all things, and has defended the compatibility of this doctrine with contemporary physics. A panentheist, Hartshorne has proposed a complex theory of God, which views divinity as a relative, processional kind of being, with an abstract eternal nature and a concrete nature subject to change and suffering. He has presented his process theology in his widely read book The Divine Relativity. In addition to his labors as teacher and philosophical author, Hartshorne is an avid birdwatcher and has written a prizewinning book, Born to Sing: An Interpretation and World Survey of Bird Song.
* * * * * * * * *
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Note: Because Alister McGrath approaches Natural Theology in a very conventional way, he consequently follows the traditional church approach steeped in Western philosophical modernism with all the cautions and care a classical theology might consider. I offer his authorial work as a good surmise of the evangelical church's position as a healthy comparison to the perspectives above, some of which utilize the Process philosophical approach via process theology and the postmodernistic quantum sciences. - re slater
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Reimagining Nature is a new introduction to the fast developing area of natural theology, written by one of the world’s leading theologians. The text engages in serious theological dialogue whilst looking at how past developments might illuminate and inform theory and practice in the present.This text sets out to explore what a properly Christian approach to natural theology might look like and how this relates to alternative interpretations of our experience of the natural world.Alister McGrath is ideally placed to write the book as one of the world’s best known theologians and a chief proponent of natural theology.This new work offers an account of the development of natural theology throughout history and informs of its likely contribution in the present.This feeds in current debates about the relationship between science and religion, and religion and the humanities.Engages in serious theological dialogue, primarily with Augustine, Aquinas, Barth and Brunner, and includes the work of natural scientists, philosophers of science, and poets.
- The Aim of This Work 8
- A Brief Genealogy of Natural Theology 11
- Natural Theology: Six Approaches 18
- The Natural Theology Project: Thick and Thin Descriptions 22
- In Defense of a “Christian” Natural Theology Project 25
- The Christian Accommodation of Classic Natural Theology 35
- Sensorium and Imaginarium: Christianity and the Re-Imagination of Nature 42
- Modernity and the Suppression of the Imagination 47
- Metanoia: Seeing Things as They Really Are 50
- Imaginative Transformation: The Church as an Interpretive Community 55
- Theoria: Imaginative Beholding and Rational Dissection 57
- Nature as logikos: Reflections on the Doctrine of Creation 61
- Metaphors of Beauty and Order: Harmony and the Dance 66
- Natural Theology as a Habitus 69
- The Intellectual Challenge of the Ambiguity of the World 73
- Nature as a Text: Natural Theology and the Book of Nature 78
- Nature as Image: Natural Theology and Landscapes 87
- Nature as a Sign: Natural Theology and Semiotics 93
- The Importance of Cultural Location for Natural Theology 101
- A New Vocational Space: Natural Theology as a Religious Calling 105
- The Wasteland: Natural Theology and the Recovery of a Lost Nature 107
- Wonder and Mystery: Transcendent Experiences 110
- Re-Enchantment: Sustaining a Sense of Wonder 113
- The Rational Transparency of Nature and Faith 116
- Connectedness: The Human Longing for Coherence 120
- Meaning: Nature and Ultimate Questions 122
- Natural Theology as a “Natural” Quest 124
- Natural Theology: Improper and Redundant? 128
- Ontotheology? Natural Theology and Philosophical “First Principles” 133
- David Hume: The Intellectual Inadequacy of a Deist Natural Theology 135
- Charles Taylor: Natural Theology and the “Immanent Frame” 138
- Barth and Brunner: The Debate which Discredited Natural Theology? 144
- Fideism: Natural Theology as Self-Referential and Self-Justifying? 149
- The Natural Sciences: Natural Theology and the Subversion of Scientism 156
- The Affective Imagination: Natural Theology and the Spirituality of Nature 163
- Boundaries and Trespass: Natural Theology and Systematic Theology 168
- Apologetics: Natural Theology and Public Engagement 173
Image courtesy of Wellcome Library, London |
[Classical] Natural theology
This article is about the branch of theology. For the 19th-century book by William Paley, see Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity.
This distinguishes it from revealed theology, which is based on scripture and/or religious experiences, also from transcendental theology, which is based on a priori reasoning. It is thus a type of philosophy, with the aim of explaining the nature of the gods, or of one supreme God. For monotheistic religions, this principally involves arguments about the attributes or non-attributes of God, and especially the existence of God, using arguments that do not involve recourse to supernatural revelation.[3][4]
The ideals of natural theology can be traced back to the Old Testament and Greek philosophy.[5] Early sources evident of these ideals come from Jeremiah and The Wisdom of Solomon (c. 50 BC)[5][6] and Plato's dialogue Timaeus (c. 360 BC).[7]
Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BCE) established a distinction between political theology (the social functions of religion), natural theology and mythical theology. His terminology became part of the Stoic tradition and then Christianity through Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas.
Ancient Greece
Besides Hesiod's Works and Days and Zarathushtra's Gathas, Plato gives the earliest surviving account of a natural theology. In the Timaeus, written c. 360 BCE, we read: "We must first investigate concerning [the whole Cosmos] that primary question which has to be investigated at the outset in every case, — namely, whether it has always existed, having no beginning or generation, or whether it has come into existence, having begun from some beginning."[7] In the Laws, in answer to the question as to what arguments justify faith in the gods, Plato affirms: "One is our dogma about the soul...the other is our dogma concerning the ordering of the motion of the stars".[8]
Ancient Rome
Varro (Marcus Terentius Varro) in his (lost) Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum (Antiquities of Human and Divine Things, 1st century BCE)[9] established a distinction between three kinds of theology: civil (political) (theologia civilis), natural (physical) (theologia naturalis) and mythical (theologia mythica). The theologians of civil theology are "the people", asking how the gods relate to daily life and the state (imperial cult). The theologians of natural theology are the philosophers, asking about the nature of the gods, and the theologians of mythical theology are the poets, crafting mythology.[10]
Middle ages
From the 8th century CE, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, used philosophy for support, and were among the first to pursue a rational Islamic theology, termed Ilm-al-Kalam (scholastic theology). The teleological argument was later presented by the early Islamic philosophers Alkindus and Averroes, while Avicenna presented both the cosmological argument and the ontological argument in The Book of Healing (1027).[11]
Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225 – 1274) presented several versions of the cosmological argument in his Summa Theologica, and of the teleological argument in his Summa contra Gentiles. He presented the ontological argument, but rejected it in favor of proofs that invoke cause and effect alone.[12][13] His quinque viae ("five ways") in those books attempted to demonstrate the existence of God in different ways, including (as way No. 5) the goal-directed actions seen in nature.[14]
Early modern onward
Raymond of Sabunde's (c. 1385–1436) Theologia Naturalis sive Liber Creaturarum, written 1434–1436, but published posthumously (1484), marks an important stage in the history of natural theology.
John Ray (1627–1705) also known as John Wray, was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology, with the objective "to illustrate the glory of God in the knowledge of the works of nature or creation".[15]
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) established another term for natural theology as theodicy, defined exactly as "the justification of God".[16] He viewed the science in a positive light as it supported his personal ethical belief system.[17]
William Derham (1657–1735) continued Ray's tradition of natural theology in two of his own works, Physico-Theology, published during 1713, and Astro-Theology, 1714. These later influenced the work of William Paley.[18]
In An Essay on the Principle of Population, published during 1798, Thomas Malthus ended with two chapters on natural theology and population. Malthus—a devout Christian—argued that revelation would "damp the soaring wings of intellect", and thus never let "the difficulties and doubts of parts of the scripture" interfere with his work.
William Paley, an important influence on Charles Darwin,[19] gave a well-known rendition of the teleological argument for God. During 1802 he published Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature.[20] In this he described the Watchmaker analogy, for which he is probably best known. However, his book, which was one of the most published books of the 19th and 20th century, presents a number of teleological and cosmological arguments for the existence of God. The book served as a template for many subsequent natural theologies during the 19th century.[21]
Professor of chemistry and natural history, Edward Hitchcock also studied and wrote on natural theology. He attempted to unify and reconcile science and religion, emphasizing geology. His major work of this type was The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences (1851).[22]
The Gifford Lectures were established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford to "promote and diffuse the study of Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term—in other words, the knowledge of God." The term natural theology as used by Gifford means theology supported by science and not dependent on the miraculous.[23]
William Lane Craig (1949-present) continues to show further interest in natural theology via his ongoing work at Houston Baptist University and Talbot School of Theology. Specifically, he explores through his work, exactly what natural theology has evolved into, in more modern terms.[24]
Bridgewater Treatises
Debates over the applicability of teleology to scientific questions continued during the nineteenth century, as Paley's argument about design conflicted with radical new theories on the transmutation of species. In order to support the scientific ideas of the time, which explored the natural world within Paley's framework of a divine designer, Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater, a gentleman naturalist, commissioned eight Bridgewater Treatises upon his deathbed to explore "the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation."[25] They were published first during the years 1833 to 1840, and afterwards in Bohn's Scientific Library. The treatises are:
- The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D.
- On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D.
- Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. D.
- The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell.
- Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget.
- Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D.
- On the History, Habits and Instincts of Animals, by William Kirby.
- Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D.
In response to the claim in Whewell's treatise that "We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administration of the universe", Charles Babbage published what he termed The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, A Fragment.[26] As his preface states, this volume was not part of that series, but rather his own considerations of the subject. He draws on his own work on calculating engines to consider God as a divine programmer setting complex laws as the basis of what we think of as miracles, rather than miraculously producing new species by creative whim. There was also a fragmentary supplement to this, published posthumously by Thomas Hill.[27]
The theology of the Bridgewater Treatises was often disputed, given that it assumed humans could have knowledge of God acquired by observation and reasoning without the aid of revealed knowledge.[28]
The works are of unequal merit; several of them were esteemed as apologetic literature, but they attracted considerable criticism. One notable critic of the Bridgewater Treatises was Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote Criticism.[29] Robert Knox, an Edinburgh surgeon and major advocate of radical morphology, referred to them as the "Bilgewater Treatises", to mock the "ultra-teleological school". Though memorable, this phrase overemphasizes the influence of teleology in the series, at the expense of the idealism of the likes of Kirby and Roget.[30]
Criticisms of natural theology
The ideals of natural theology did not come without criticism. Many opposed the idea of natural theology but some philosophers had larger influences on the population. The ideals became widely discredited under the influences of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, and Charles Darwin. Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics also heavily opposed the entirety of natural theology.[31]
David Hume's Dialogue's Concerning Natural Religion played a major role in Hume's standpoint on natural theology. Hume's ideas heavily stem from the idea of natural belief.[32] It was stated that, "Hume's doctrine of natural belief allows that certain beliefs are justifiably held by all men without regard to the quality of the evidence which may be produced in their favour".[32] However, Hume's argument also stems from the design argument.[33] The design argument comes from people being labeled as morally good or evil.[33] Hume's argument claims that if we restrict ourselves to the idea of good and evil, that we must also assign this to the designer as well.[33] Hume states, "I will allow that pain or misery in man is compatible with infinite power and goodness in the Deity...A mere possible compatibility is not sufficient. You must prove these pure, unmixt, and uncontrollable attributes...".[33] Hume argues for the idea of a morally perfect deity and requires evidence for anything besides that.[33] Hume's arguments against natural theology had a wide influence on many philosophers.[34]
Immanuel Kant and Søren Kierkegaard both had similar ideals when it came to natural theology.[35] Kant's ideals focused more on the natural dialect of reason while Kierkegaard focused more heavily on the dialect of understanding.[35] Both men suggest that, "the natural dialect leads to the question of God".[35] Kant heavily argues for the idea that reason leads to the ideas of God as a regular principle.[35] Kierkegaard heavily argues that the idea of understanding will ultimately lead itself to becoming faith. [36]Both of these men argue that the idea of God cannot solely exist on the idea of reason, that the dialect and ideals will transcend into faith.[35]
Charles Darwin's criticism on the theory had a broader impact on scientists and commoners.[34] Darwin's theories showed that humans and animals developed through an evolutionary process. The idea of this argued that a chemical reaction was occurring, but, it had no influence from the idea of God.[34] However, Darwin's ideas did not erase the question of how the original ideas of matter came to be.[34]
Karl Barth opposed the entirety of natural theology. Barth argued that "by starting from such experience, rather that from the gracious revelation through Jesus Christ, we produce a concept of God that is the projection of the highest we know, a construct of human thinking, divorced from salvation history".[31] Barth argues that God is restricted by the construct of human thinking if He is divorced from salvation. [37] Barth also acknowledges that God is knowledgeable because of His grace. Barth's argument stems from the idea of faith rather than reason.[37]
See also
- Book of Nature
- Deism
- Natural religion
- Epicureanism
- Intelligent design
- Natural magic
- Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action
- Theistic evolution
- Theistic rationalism
- Theophysics
- Noetics
References
- ^ "Physicotheology | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
- ^ Chignell, Andrew; Pereboom, Derk (2020), "Natural Theology and Natural Religion", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 9 October 2020
- ^ Wahlberg, Mats (2020), "Divine Revelation", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 9 October 2020
- ^ "Natural Theology | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 9 October 2020.
- ^ ab Swinburne, Richard (2007). "THE REVIVAL OF NATURAL THEOLOGY". Archivio di Filosofia. 75: 303–322 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Jennifer Mary Dines (8 June 2004). The Septuagint. A&C Black. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-567-08464-4.
usually assigned to the late first century BCE
- ^ ab Plato, Timaeus
- ^ Plato, Laws
- ^ "Marcus Terentius Varro | Roman author". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 January2019.
- ^ "Charles Darwin: Evolutionary Theory, Past and Present" (PDF). earth.northwestern.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2010.
- ^ Abrahamov, Binyāmîn (1990). "Introduction". In Abrahamov, Binyāmîn (ed.). Kitāb al-Dalīl al-Kabīr. Brill. ISBN 9004089853.
- ^ Hedley Brooke, John. Science and Religion. 1991.
- ^ "DOES THE EMPIRICAL NATURE OF SCIENCE CONTRADICT THE REVELATORY NATURE OF FAITH? - Edge.org". edge.org.
- ^ "Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways (Part 2): Contingency, Goodness, Design". thatreligiousstudieswebsite.com.
- ^ Armstrong, Patrick (2000). The English Parson-Naturalist. Gracewing. p. 46. ISBN 0-85244-516-4.
- ^ "Principles of Natural Theology 2". maritain.nd.edu. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
- ^ Youpa, Andrew (2016), "Leibniz's Ethics", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 9 October 2020
- ^ Weber, AS., Nineteenth-Century Science: An Anthology, Broadview Press, 2000, p. 18.
- ^ Wyhe, John van (27 May 2014). Charles Darwin in Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years. World Scientific. pp. 90–92. ISBN 9789814583992.
- ^ Paley, William (2006). Natural Theology, Matthew Daniel Eddy and David M. Knight (Eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). "Nineteenth Century Natural Theology". The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology.
- ^ Hitchcock, Edward. "Making of America Books: The religion of geology and its connected sciences". University of Michigan. Retrieved 8 August 2009.[page needed]
- ^ See Gifford Lectures online database accessed 15 October 2010.
- ^ Craig, William Lane; Moreland, J. P., eds. (17 April 2009). The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology. doi:10.1002/9781444308334. ISBN 9781405176576.
- ^ Robson, John M. (1990). "The Fiat and Finger of God: The Bridgewater Treatises". In Helmstadter, Richard J.; Lightman, Bernard V. (eds.). Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1602-4.
- ^ Babbage, Charles (24 October 2018). "The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. A Fragment". John Murray – via Google Books.
- ^ Hill, Thomas; Charles Babbage (1874). Geometry and faith. GP Putnam.
- ^ Darwin Online: The Bridgewater Treatises. Retrieved on 29 April 2014.
- ^ Criticism, Edgar Allan Poe, (1850)
- ^ Alexander, Denis; Numbers, Ronald L. (2010). Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-226-60841-9.
- ^ ab Sherry, Patrick (2003). "The Religious Roots of Natural Theology". New Blackfriars. 84(988): 301–307. doi:10.1111/j.1741-2005.2003.tb06302.x – via JSTOR.
- ^ ab Gaskin, J.C.A. (July 1974). "God, Hume and Natural Belief". Philosophy. 49 (189): 281–294. doi:10.1017/S0031819100048233. JSTOR 3750118 – via JSTOR.
- ^ ab c d e Bradley, M.C. (September 2007). "Hume's Chief Objection to Natural Theology". Religious Studies. 43 (3): 249–270. doi:10.1017/S0034412507008992 – via JSTOR.
- ^ ab c d Swinburne, Richard (2007). "The Revival of Natural Theology". Archivio di Filosofia. 75: 303–322 – via JSTOR.
- ^ ab c d e Fremstedal, Roe (March 2013). "The Moral Argument for the Existence of God and Immorality: Kierkegaard and Kant". The Journal of Religious Ethics. 41: 50–78. doi:10.1111/jore.12004 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Pourmohammadi, Na'imeh (2013). "KIERKEGAARD AND THE ASH'ARITES ON REASON AND THEOLOGY". Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica. 105: 591–609 – via JSTOR.
- ^ ab Matthews, Gareth (30 January 1964). "Theology and Natural Theology". The Journal of Philosophy. 61 (3): 99–108. doi:10.2307/2023755. JSTOR 2023755 – via JSTOR.
Further reading
- A Bridgewater Treatise for the 21st Century. Science. (Vol 301, p. 1051, 22 August 2003). A review by Robert T. Pennock of philosopher of science Michael Ruse's book Darwin & Design.
- Babbage, C., The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise; Murray, 1837 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00000-0)
- Bascom, John, Natural Theology (1880)
- Bell, C., The Hand. Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1833 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00088-8)
- Chalmers, T., On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God. As Manifested in the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1834 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00072-7)
- John B. Cobb, A Christian Natural Theology, 1965 (online edition)
- Connolly, Brendan, The Natural Religion, 2008; ISBN 978-0-9558313-0-0
- Hauerwas, Stanley, With the Grain of the Universe: The Church's Witness and Natural Theology ISBN 1-58743-016-9
- Kirby, W., On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God. As Manifested in the Creation of Animals and in Their History, Habits and Instincts; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1835 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00073-4)
- Paley, W., Natural Theology. Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature; Bridgewater Treatises, Faulder, 1803 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00355-1)
- Polkinghorne, J. and Oord, T.J., The Polkinghorne Reader] : Science, Faith, and the Search for Meaning (SPCK and Templeton Foundation Press, 2010) ISBN 1-59947-315-1 and ISBN 978-0-281-06053-5
- Prout, W., Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion Considered with Reference to Natural Theology; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1834 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00066-6)
- Roget, P.M., Animal and Vegetable Physiology. Considered with Reference to Natural Theology; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1834 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00008-6)
- Waters, B.V. (2015). "Toward a new kalām cosmological argument". Cogent Arts & Humanities. 2 (1). doi:10.1080/23311983.2015.1062461.
- Whewell, W., Astronomy and General Physics Considered with Reference to Natural Theology; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1833 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00012-3)
External links
- Apollos.ws A Christian site surveying arguments for the existence of God and responses to common arguments against.
- Toward a new kalām cosmological argument
- Catholic Encyclopedia article Bridgewater Treatises
- Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion by David Hume
- Babbage, Charles The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise 2nd edn. 1838, London: John Murray.
- Natural Theology article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Bridgewater Treatises
- The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D.
- On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D.
- Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. D.
- The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell.
- Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Considered with Reference to Natural Theology Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget.
- Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D.
- The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology, Vol. 2, by William Kirby.
- Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D.
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